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Modified:
Nov 4, 2004
West Nile Virus

West Nile Virus
Bibliography of Scientific Literature (C)

  • Caceamise, Donald F., Lisa M. Reed, Jerzy Romanowski, Philip C. Stauffer.1997. Roosting Behavior and Group Territoriality in American Crows. The Auk 114:628-37. Abstract at: http://www.cfe.cornell.edu/ERAP/WNV/WNVEducDocs/CrowRoosting.html

    Abstract: Cooperative groups of American Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) maintain group territories year-round while often traveling long distances to roost communally at night. Our goal was to discover how territorial crows resolve the conflict between the cohesive nature of group behavior with requirements of dispersal to roost communally. We color-marked crows to study group composition over two years, and radio-tagged crows to study movement among roosts, territories, and feeding areas. Most crows showed diurnal fidelity to the group territory throughout the year. Yet, most birds frequently left territories during the day to forage up to 4 km away. At night, crows roosted either on their territory or IS km away at a large roost adjacent to a landfill. Crows roosted on territories more often in spring (87%) than in winter (42%). Group cohesion was high on territories, yet we found no evidence for group behavior away from territories. Crows arrived singly both to territories in the morning and to the communal roost in the afternoon. Group cohesion for territorial crows appears to be based on decisions of individuals to return to territories from distant roosting and foraging sites. Group cohesion on territories is tied to retention of breeding sites, whereas dispersal for communal roosting likely is linked to benefits derived from foraging away from territories, particularly in winter when physiological stress is greatest and territorial food supplies are lowest. Received by The Auk 10 May 1996, accepted 9 April 1997.

  • Calle, P. P., B. L. Raphael, T. L. Clippinger, R. A. Cook, G. V. Ludwig, J. Mangiafico, J. Hile, and D. Danner. 2001. West Nile Serologic Surveys of WCS New York City Zoological Collections. Proceedings of the Society for Tropical Veterinary Medicine and Wildlife Disease Association, 99.
  • Calle, P. P., G. V. Ludwig, J. F. Smith, B. L. Raphael, T. L. Clippinger, E. M. Rush, T. McNamara, R. Manduca, M. Linn, M. J. Turell, R. J. Schoepp, T. Larsen, J. Mangiafico, K. E. Steele, and R. A. Cook. 2000. Clinical Aspects of West Nile Virus Infection in a Zoological Collection. AAZV/IAAAM Joint Conference Proceedings, 92-96.
  • Calle P.P., T.S. McNamara , B.L. Raphael, R.M. Manduca, M.J. Linn, T.L. Clippinger, E.M. Rush, R.A. Cook, G.V. Ludwig, K.E. Steele, et al. 2000. An Avian West Nile Virus Epornitic at a Zoological Park. Proceedings of the Wildlife Disease Association p 82-3.
  • Campbell, G.L., C.S. Ceianu, and H.M. Savage. 2001. Epidemic West Nile Encephalitis in Romania. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 951(1):94

    Abstract: Seroprevalence data suggest that West Nile virus activity in southern Romania dates to the 1960s or earlier. In the summer of 1996, southeastern Romania and especially Bucharest experienced an unprecedented epidemic of West Nile encephalitis/meningitis, with at least 393 hospitalized cases and 17 deaths. Contributing factors included a susceptible avian population and urban/suburban infrastructural conditions that favored the production of large numbers of Culex pipiens pipiens. The epidemic ended spontaneously in early autumn. Results of serosurveys conducted as the epidemic waned pointed to the recent, novel introduction of West Nile virus to Bucharest. During 1997-2000, 39 scattered human cases of clinical West Nile virus infection (mean, 10 per year; range, 5-14 per year)—including 5 (13%) fatal cases—were diagnosed serologically throughout the region, but epidemic disease did not recur. Results of limited ecologic surveillance efforts during 1997-2000 suggested the existence of numerous focal areas of enzootic West Nile virus activity within the region. The authors explore the possible factors that led to the 1996 epidemic, review the ecologic and human data gathered during the postepidemic period of 1997-2000, summarize the public health lessons offered by the epidemic and its aftermath, and speculate on the future of epidemic West Nile virus activity in southeastern Romania.

  • Cantile, C., G. Di Guardo, C. Eleni and M. Arispici. 2000. Clinical and Neuropathological Features of West Nile Virus Equine Encephalomyelitis in Italy. Equine Veterinary Journal 32(1):31-35.
  • Cantor, Kenneth P. and Warren Silberman.1999. Mortality Among Aerial Pesticide Applicators and Flight Instructors: Follow-up from 1965-1988. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 36(2): 239-247.

    Abstract: A retrospective cohort study compared mortality data for 9,961 aerial pesticide applicators with corresponding data for a control group of 9,969 flight instructors. Aerial pesticide applicators suffer risks both from chronic pesticide exposure and from the "possibility of exposure to neurotoxic pesticides that impair coordination, balance, and other neuromotor functions essential for safe flying."

    The study covered the period 1965-1988. The aerial pesticide applicators had significantly elevated mortality rates from malignant tumors, stroke, motor vehicle accidents, non-motor vehicle accidents (mostly aircraft accidents), and all causes of death. Aerial pesticide applicators also had significantly higher rates of pancreatic cancer and leukemia than the controls.

  • Canyon D.V. and J.L.K. HII. 1997. Efficacy of Carbon Dioxides, 1-Octen-3-OL, and Lactic Acid in Modified Fay-Prince Traps as Compared to Man-Landing Catch Aedes Aegypti. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 13(1) 66-70.

    Abstract: The attractants 1-octen-3-ol and lactic acid significantly decreased catches of Aedes aegypti in Townsville, Australia, by 50 % in a controlled laboratory environment and by 100% in the field when compared to carbon dioxide baited bidirectional Fay-Prince trap catches. Evaluation of an omnidirectional alteration on a bidirectional Fay-Prince trap revealed no significant improvement in catch size when compared to both the bidirectional trap and man-landing catch (MLC). Cumulative evening MLC (1730-2000 h) was twice that of the morning MLC (0600-0830 h), which has implications on the precise estimation of the man-biting rate. The MLC sampling method is shown to be a quick, simple, effective, and cheap alternative to expensive traps in areas not currently experiencing arbovirus transmission.

  • Centers for Disease Control Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR)The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) Series is prepared by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The data in the weekly MMWR are provisional, based on weekly reports to CDC by state health departments. The reporting week concludes at close of business on Friday; compiled data on a national basis are officially released to the public on the succeeding Friday (http://www2.cdc.gov/mmwr/). For weekly updates, go to http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/mmwrsrch.htm and search for West Nile Virus. Links to some MMWR articles specifically concerned with West Nile Virus are below.
  • Centers for Disease Control, Requirement for Certification of Used Tire Casings from Asia Prior to Entry into the United States. 1987. Federal Register 52(224):44646.
  • Cernescu, Costin, Nicolae-Ion Nedelcu, Gratiela Tardei, Simona Ruta, and Theodore F. Tsai. 2000. Continued Transmission of West Nile Virus to Humans in Southeastern Romania, 1997-1998.The Journal of Infectious Diseases 181 (Feb 8):710-712.
    http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/JID/journal/issues/v181n2/990279/990279.html

    Abstract: After an epidemic of West Nile (WN) virus neurologic infections in southeastern Romania in 1996, human and animal surveillance were established to monitor continued transmission of the virus. During 1997 and 1998, neurologic infections were diagnosed serologically as WN encephalitis in 12 of 322 patients in 19 southeastern districts and in 1 of 75 Bucharest patients. In addition, amid a countrywide epidemic of measles, the etiology of the febrile exanthem in 2 of 180 investigated cases was determined serologically to be WN fever; 1 case was complicated by hepatitis. Sentinel chickens placed in Bucharest seroconverted to WN virus during the summer months, indicating their potential value in monitoring transmission. The continued occurrence of sporadic WN infections in southeastern Romania in consecutive years after the 1996 epidemic is consistent with local enzootic transmission of the virus.

  • Chamberlain, Roy W. and William D. Sudia. 1961. Mechanism of Transmission of Viruses by Mosquitoes. Annual Review of Entomology 6:371-390.

    Summary: Vector-pathogen relationships of arthropod-borne viruses have been categorized as either

    • mechanical transmission—where the vector is merely a carrier from infection source to host, usually by contaminated mouthparts, (e.g., spread of myxoma virus among rabbits by mosquitoes) or
    • biological transmission—where the arthropod plays a biological role in maintaining the pathogen.

    The latter is more epidemiologically significant as well as more complicated. In the mid-1950s evidence began to emerge that mosquitoes could serve as both mechanical and biological vectors of the same virus: In such a case, transmission following abrief incubation with decreasing efficiency over time, would be "mechanical" while transmission that increased over time after an incubation period would be "biological."
    "In view of the high viremias of eastern and estern encephalitis know to occur in birds, these viruses are probably, on occasion, spread mechanically by mosquitoes from a single bird to others in a rookery or nest. Possibly even yellow fever virus could be transmitted in this manner from an infected monkey to associated normal ones, particularly at their sleeping sites. In any event, however, mechanical transmission in the situation discussed above would be dependent upon active infection in the area produced by biological vectors and would thus serve only as a suppplementary means of virus transfer. (p374)"
    Key phases/issues in virus infection of mosquitoes are discussed, including:

    • establishing the infection
    • virus distribution
    • salivary gland infection and transmission by bite
    • dual infection, and
    • transovarial transmision.
  • Chambers, T.J., M. Halevy, A. Nestorowicz, et al. 1998. West Nile Virus Envelope Proteins: Nucleotide Sequence Analysis of Strains Differing in Mouse Neuroinvasiveness. Journal of General Virology 79(10):2375.
  • Chang G., B. Davis, A. Hunt, D. Holmes, and G. Kuno. 2001. Flavivirus DNA Vaccines. Current Status and Potential. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 951:272-285. http://www.annalsnyas.org/cgi/content/full/951/1/272

    Abstract: The use of DNA-based vaccines is a novel and promising immunization approach for the development of flavivirus vaccines. This approach has been attempted in vaccine development for various virus species, including St. Louis encephalitis, Russian spring-summer encephalitis, Central European encephalitis, dengue serotypes 1 and 2, Murray Valley encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile viruses. However, very little is known about the factors affecting its efficacy. Recently, we demonstrated that a single intramuscular immunization of DNA vaccine of Japanese encephalitis and West Nile viruses protected mice and horses from virus challenge. Administration of these recombinant plasmid vectors resulted in endogenous expression and secretion of extracellular virus-like particles that correlated well with the induction of protective immunity. These results provided evidence that the virus-like particles composed of premembrane/membrane and envelope proteins are essential for eliciting immune responses similar to those induced by live, attenuated virus vaccines. The biosynthesis and protein processing of premembrane/membrane and envelope proteins that preserve the native conformation and glycosylation profiles identical to virion proteins could be determined by the effectiveness of the transmembrane signal sequence located at the amino-terminus of premembrane protein. The use of DNA vaccines in multivalent and/or combination vaccines designed to immunize against multiple flaviviruses is also a promising area of development.

  • Chu, Miyoko, Ward Stone, Kevin J. McGowan, Andre A. Dhondt, Wesley M. Hochachka and Joseph E. Therrien. 2003. West Nile File: Numbers indicate crows and some raptors are among the hardest hit. Birdscope 17(1):10-11. http://environmentalrisk.cornell.edu/WNV/WNVEducDocs/BirdScope-Winter2003.pdf

    Summary: Hard data on the effects of WNV on birds are rare because dead birds are not typically found nor tested for WNV. However, since 1999 the Pathology Unit of the NYS Department of Environmental Conservation has examined more than 12,500 specimens of 213 bird species for WNV-associated cause of death.

    Results thus far suggest that the impact of WNV on birds is scattershot, with severe outbreaks of WNV mostly confined to localized areas over its broad range, and mortality rates that vary considerably among species. The greatest threat from WNV is to susceptible endangered species.

    Most birds tested in NYS died from causes other than WNV, primarily traumatic injuries, poisoning, starvation, other diseases and parasites.

    While one laboratory study has shown that 100% of crows infected with WNV died within 7 days of infection, the inverse is not true — I.e., under field conditions WNV is not the most prevalent cause of death of crows. Of the 5,950 wild American Crows tested by the Pathology Unit, 44% of the dead crows were infected with WNV. However, there were no WNV cases during the winter, while 78% of those tested in September were infected. A significant implication of this seasonal variation in WNV infection rate is that fecal contamination at winter roosts of the American Crow appears to be of little importance as a means of WNV transmission. Among other dead wild birds tested, WNV-infection was found in 34% of Fish Crows (N=116), 29% of Blue Jays (N=1,284) (both closely related to the American Crow), 23% of House Finches (N=43) and 14% of House Sparrows (N=427). Among other dead songbirds, only 3% tested postive for WNV.

    A preliminary report from the USGS National Wildlife Health Center confirmed that 9 of 30 dead captive raptors at rehabilitation projects in several states were WNV-positive. Statistics for wild raptors tested in NYS are uneven, with WNV-positive results in 12% of hawks (N=359), 33% of Merlins (N=15), and 33% of Kestrels (N=33). None of the 18 Peregrine Falcons, 25 Bald Eagles, 13 ospreys, 24 Barred Ownls and 37 Screech Owls tested WNV-positive, but 14% of Great Horned Owls did (N=63).

  • Collins, J.N. and V.H. Resh. 1985. Factors that Limit the Role of Immature Damselflies as Natural Mosquito Control Agents at Coyote Hills Marsh. Proceedings: Mosquito and Vector Control Association of California 53:87-92.
  • Colwell, Rita, P. Epstein, D. Gubler, M. Hall, P. Reiter, J. Shukla, W. Sprigg, E. Takafuji, and J. Trtanj. 1998. Global Climate Change and Infectious Diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases 4(3):451-452.

    Abstract: Climate change, if it occurs at the level projected by current global circulation models, may have important and far-reaching effects on infectious diseases, especially those transmitted by poikilothermic arthropods such as mosquitoes and ticks. Although most scientists agree that global climate change will influence infectious disease transmission dynamics, the extent of the influence is uncertain. This conference session provided an overview of the issues associated with climate change as it relates to the emergence and spread of infectious diseases.
  • Cook, R. A., B. Raphael, P. P. Calle, M. Linn, T. Clippinger, P. Thomas, and T. McNamara. 2000. The Institutional Implications of West Nile Virus. AAZV/IAAM Joint Conference Proceedings, 84-88.
  • Cornel, A.J., and R.H. Hunt. 1991. Aedes albopictus in Africa? First Records of Live Specimens in Imported Tires in Cape Town. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 7:107-108.

    Abstract: Live larvae of Aedes albopictus have been found entering South Africa in used tire casings imported from Japan on three separate occasions. This is the first evidence that this mosquito is entering African and underlines the value of mosquito monitoring programs to detect the importations of this important vector. It is suggested that undetected populations of Ae. albopictus may have already become established in Africa.

  • Covello, V., R. Peters, J. Wojtecki and R. Hyde. June 2001. Risk Communication, the West Nile Virus Epidemic and Bioterrorism: Responding to the Communication Challenges Posed by Intentional or Unintentional Release of a Pathogen in an Urban Setting. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine. Vol 78(2): 382-391.
    http://www.centerforriskcommunication.com/pubs/crc-p1.pdf.

    Abstract: The intentional or unintentional introduction of a pathogen in an urban setting presents severe communication challenges. Risk communication - a science-based approach for communicating effectively in high concern situations - provides a set of principles and tools for meeting those challenges. A brief overview of the risk communication theoretical perspective and basic risk communication models are presented here, and the risk communication perspective is applied to the West Nile Virus epidemic in New York City in 1999 and 2000 and to a possible bioterrorist event. The purpose is to provide practical information on how perceptions of the risks associated with a disease outbreak might be perceived and best managed.
  • Crans, W. J. 1964. Continued Host Preference Studies with New Jersey Mosquitoes Proceedings for the 51st New Jersey Mosquito Extermination Association 51-58.
  • Crans, Wayne J. and James R. McNelley. 1997. A Classification System for the Life Cycles of Mosquitoes in New Jersey. New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Publication No. E-40101-02-97. http://www-rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/mosclass.htm.

    Summary (mostly verbatim from the report, with notes to make relevant and more specific to WNV vectors): This classification system identifies 13 life history types based upon four characteristics:
    • where the egg is laid
    • typical larval habitat
    • number of generations/year
    • stage of life cycle that overwinters.
    The species of mosquitoes identified as WNV+ in New York State include Culex spp (the vast majority of specimens), Aedes vexans, Aedes japonicus, Aedes triseriatus, Aedes cantator, Anopheles punctipennis and Psorophora ferox. These species fall into 6 of the NJ life history types:
    • Aedes vexans Type — Includes Psorophora ferox. The largest Type group, including the multivoltine Aedes / Psorophora commonly referred to as floodwater mosquitoes. The entire group undergoes accelerated larval development and can pupate within 4-5 days of egg hatch if water temperatures are favorable. Characterized by: Desiccation resistant eggs laid in ground depressions; Larvae develop in a wide range of transient freshwater habitats;Multiple generations each year; Overwinters in the egg stage.
    • Aedes triseriatusType — [Note: in addition to the species listed in this Type, the recently noticed immigrant species Aedes japonicus also falls into this category]. This Type represents another variation on the multivoltine Aedes / Psorophora life cycle. The species included in this category deposit their eggs just above the water line in containers that will eventually be filled with rainwater. Like most multivoltine species with desiccation resistant eggs, rainfall patterns determine the number of generations each year. Repeated rainfall results in frequent changes in water levels and larval populations of mixed instars. Characterized by: Desiccation resistant eggs laid above the waterline in a container habitat; Larvae develop in a wide range of natural and artificial containers; Multiple generations each year; Overwinters in the egg stage.
    • Aedes sollicitans Type — Includes Aedes cantator. This Type represents a variation on the multivoltine Aedes / Psorophora life cycle containing species with considerable salt tolerance that enables them to use the vast expanses of coastal salt marsh wetlands unsuitable for most multivoltine floodwater species. Characterized by: Desiccation resistant eggs laid on a substrate that will be flooded by lunar tides; Larvae develop in salt marsh pools; Multiple generations each year; Overwinters in the egg stage.
    • Anopheles quadrimaculatus Type — Includes Anopheles punctipennis. Described as the basic multivoltine Culex / Anopheles life cycle represented by Culex pipiens in the earlier classification systems of both Bates and Pratt. The eggs must remain moist to hatch and are, therefore, laid directly on the surface of the water instead of an area that will flood at a later date. Breeding is continuous, thus, all instars are represented in typical breeding habitat. Culex pipiens, the type species for this life cycle in previous classification systems, is pollution tolerant and rarely found with most multivoltine Culex and Anopheles. The breeding habitat for the life cycle type we are presenting always includes clear water that supports emergent vegetation. As a result, we have excluded Cx. pipiens from this swamp life cycle and include only species that are non-pollution tolerant. Characterized by: Non-desiccation resistant eggs laid directly on water; Larvae develop in freshwater swamp habitats; Multiple generations each year; Overwinters as a mated female.
    • Culex salinarius Type — In this Type, a pool of Cx. salinarius has tested WNV+. Multivoltine Culex / Anopheles counterpart of the life cycle utilized by floodwater Aedes with salt tolerance. The eggs, however, are deposited directly on standing water rather than moist mud exposed at low tide. Few of the species in this group breed directly on tidal marshes. Most reach greatest abundance in areas adjacent to salt marshes where fresh water from the upland drains onto coastal habitats. Each of the species in the group is capable of breeding in areas where salt concentrations are minimal but all reach greatest concentrations in coastal areas of the state. Characterized by: Non-desiccation resistant eggs laid directly on water; Larvae develop in permanent brackish water habitats; Multiple generations each year; Overwinters as a mated female.
    • Culex pipiens Type — Includes Cx. pipiens, Cx. restuans. A third variation on the multivoltine Culex / Anopheles life cycle. Pollution tolerance becomes a limiting factor and allows representatives to utilize water that excludes most freshwater breeders. Species that belong to this group tend to be urban, rather than rural, pests. Characterized by: Non-desiccation resistant eggs laid directly on water; Larvae develop in polluted water habitats; Multiple generations each year; Overwinters as a mated female.
  • Craven, R.B., D.A. Eliason, D.B. Francy, P. Reiter, E.G. Campos, W.L. Jakob, G.C. Smith, C.J. Bozzi, C.G. Moore, G.O. Maupin and T.P. Monath. 1988. Importation of Aedes albopictus and Other Exotic Species into the United States in Used Tires from Asia. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 4:138-142.

    Abstract: Between May 18 and December 4, 1986, 79 seagoing containers and their contents of 22,051 used tires were inspected for adult mosquitoes as well as eggs and larvae. Of the total inspected, 5,507 tires (25%) contained significant amounts of water. No adults or eggs were found. Fifteen tires contained mosquito larvae that were identified as Ae. albopictus, Ae. togoi, Culex pipiens complex, Tripteroides bambusa, and Uranotaenia bimaculata. The infestation rate for all species was 6.8 infested tires per 10,000 tires (wet and dry) inspected. Aedes albopictus larvae were most frequently collected, occurring at a rate of 20 infested wet tires per 10,000 inspected.

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