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Modified:
Nov 5, 2004
West Nile Virus

West Nile Virus
Bibliography of Scientific Literature (H)

  • Hadler, James, Randall Nelson, Tara McCarthy, Theodore Andreadis, Mary Jane Lis, Richard French, William Beckwith, Donald Mayo, Gary Archambault, and Matthew Cartter. West Nile Virus Surveillance in Connecticut in 2000: An Intense Epizootic without High Risk for Severe Human Disease. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7(4): 636-642. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol7no4/hadler.htm

    Abstract: In 1999, Connecticut was one of three states in which West Nile (WN) virus actively circulated prior to its recognition. In 2000, prospective surveillance was established, including monitoring bird deaths, testing dead crows, trapping and testing mosquitoes, testing horses and hospitalized humans with neurologic illness, and conducting a human seroprevalence survey. WN virus was first detected in a dead crow found on July 5 in Fairfield County. Ultimately, 1,095 dead crows, 14 mosquito pools, 7 horses, and one mildly symptomatic person were documented with WN virus infection. None of 86 hospitalized persons with neurologic illness (meningitis, encephalitis, Guillain-Barrré-like syndrome) and no person in the seroprevalence survey were infected. Spraying in response to positive surveillance findings was minimal. An intense epizootic of WN virus can occur without having an outbreak of severe human disease in the absence of emergency adult mosquito management.

  • Ham, C. M., M. V. Meisch, and C. L. Meek. 1999. Efficacy of Dibrom®, Trumpet®, and Scourge® Against Four Mosquito Species in Louisiana. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 15(4):433-436.

    Abstract: Adult mortality of Anopheles quadrimaculatus, Culex quinquefasciatus, and the Aedus spp. complex (Aedus sollicitans and Aedus taeniorhynchus) was observed after aerial ultra-low volume (ULV) exposure to Dibrom®, Trumpet®, and Scourge®. Dibrom was applied at 112 g active ingredient (AI)/ha, Trumpet at 112 g AI/ha, and Scourge at 1.96 AI/ha. At all time intervals, Dibrom and Trumpet were significantly more effective against the Aedus spp. complex than against An. quadrimaculatus and Cx. quinquefasciatus. Scourge was significantly more effective against An. quadrimaculatus and Cx. quinquefasciatus than Dibrom or Trumpet. Trumpet was evaluated at lower labeled rates (28, 56, and 84 g AI/ha) against Cx. quinquefasciatus and the Aedus spp. complex. Adult mortality with Trumpet increased significantly at 1 and 24 h against Cx. quinquefasciatus. With the Aedus spp. complex, mortality increased with rate at 1 h, but at 12 and 24 h, the medium complex were also subjected to ULV ground applications of Dibrom, Trumpet, and Scourge. Dibrom was applied at 22.4 g AI/ha, Trumpet at 22.4 g AI/ha, and Scourge as a 1:6 mineral oil mixture at 1.96 g AI/ha. Relative to Dibrom and Trumpet, mortality from Scourge differed greatly with mosquito species. Against Cx. quinquefasciatus, Scourge was significantly more effective than Dibrom and Trumpet at all times and distances, but against the Aedus spp. complex Scourge was significantly less effective.

  • Han, Linda L., Florin Popovici, James P. Alexander Jr., Velea Laurentia, Leslie A. Tengelsen, Costin Cernescu, Howard E. Gary, Jr., Nicolae Ion-Nedelcu, Grant L. Campbell, and Theodore F. Tsai. 1999. Risk Factors for West Nile Virus Infection and Meningoencephalitis, Romania, 1996. Journal of Infectious Diseases 179:230-233. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/JID/journal/issues/v179n1/980624/980624.html

    Abstract: In 1996, an epidemic of 393 cases of laboratory-confirmed West Nile meningoencephalitis occurred in southeast Romania, with widespread subclinical human infection. Two case-control studies were performed to identify risk factors for acquiring infection and for developing clinical meningoencephalitis after infection. Mosquitoes in the home were associated with infection (reported by 37 [97%] of 38 asymptomatically seropositive persons compared with 36 [72%] of 50 seronegative controls, P < .01) and, among apartment dwellers, flooded basements were a risk factor (reported by 15 [63%] of 24 seropositive persons vs. 11 [30%] of 37 seronegative controls, P = .01). Meningoencephalitis was not associated with hypertension or other underlying medical conditions but was associated with spending more time outdoors (meningoencephalitis patients and asymptomatically seropositive persons spent 8.0 and 3.5 h [medians] outdoors daily, respectively, P < .01). Disease prevention efforts should focus on eliminating peridomestic mosquito breeding sites and reducing peridomestic mosquito exposure.

    Presented in part: 35th annual meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, September 1997, San Francisco (abstract 163).

  • Hannoun, C., R. Panthier and B. Corniou. 1969.Epidemiology of West Nile Infections in the South of France. In: Arboviruses of the California Complex and Bunyamwera Group (Bárdos, V., Ed.). Vydav. SAV, Bratislava. 379-387.
  • Harvell, C.Drew, Charles E. Mitchell, Jessica R. Ward, Sonia Altizer, Andrew P. Dobson, Richard S. Ostfeld, Michael D. Samuel. 2002. Climate Warming and Disease Risks for Terrestrial and Marine Biota. Science 296:2158-2162.
  • Harrack, M., B. Guenno, P. Gounon. Portfolio Isolement du virus West Nile au Maroc http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/unites/scme/portfolio/virus/virusWN.htm [Translation to English (Google)]

    Abstract (from translation): During the summer 1996, an unusual pathology in horses of the Atlantic littoral zone in the western North of Morocco was reported to the veterinary services. It was characterized by an ascending paralysis of the rear limbs evolving/moving towards death in 40% of the cases or towards a slow re-establishment but without after-effects for the remainder of the animals. The histopathology directed towards a viral infection of the nervous system, however, the investigations of laboratory made it possible to eliminate the traditional viral diseases quickly the such rhinopneumonie or the equine plague. A brain broyat of a horse deceased was inoculated on five different cellular types. After several passages, a virus cytopathic on cells BSR, sensitive to solvents of the lipids and size lower than 100nm was isolated. In parallel, of the sick serums of horses were tested against the alphavirus equine encéphalites American, Eastern, Western and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (EEE, WEE, VEE), and counters the flavivirus West Nile, known in France to have been responsible for a comparable pathology in the Camargue in the Sixties [ 1 ]. These 9 taking away were positive in IgG against West Nile. To support this suspicion, two series of taking away realized in the same breeding in Mars and October 1996 were tested against West Nile and showed a clear séroconversion between the two dates. The confirmation came from the identification by immunofluorescence of the virus isolated in culture and the study in electronic microscopy showed the aspects characteristic of this family of the flaviviridae reported in the legend.

  • Hawley, W. A., R. S. Copeland, C. B. Pumpuni and G. B. Craig Jr. 1987. Aedes albopictus in North America: Probable Introduction in Used Tires From Northern Asia. Science 236:1114-1116.

    Abstract: North American strains of Aedes albopictus, an Asian mosquito recently introduced into the Western Hemisphere, exhibit photoperiodic sensitivity and cold-hardiness characteristics similar to strains originating from temperate zone Asia. Trade statistics for used tire imports, the most likely mode of introduction, also indicate a north Asian origin. Aedes albopictus, an important vector of dengue and a potential vector of many other arboviral diseases, may therefore have the capability of infesting much of temperate North America.

  • Hayes, C.G. 1989. West Nile fever. Pages 59-88 in T. Monath, ed., The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, Vol. V CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL. 
  • Hayes, C.G. 2001. West Nile Virus: Uganda, 1937, to New York City, 1999. Annals of the New York Acaemy of Sciences 951:25-37. http://www.annalsnyas.org/cgi/content/full/951/1/25

    Abstract: West Nile virus, first isolated in 1937, is among the earliest arthropod-borne viruses discovered by humans. Its broad geographical distribution, not uncommon infection of humans, transmission by mosquitoes, and association with wild birds as enzootic hosts were well documented by the mid-1960s. However, West Nile virus was not considered to be a significant human pathogen because most infections appeared to result in asymptomatic or only mild febrile disease. Several epidemics had been documented prior to 1996, some involving hundreds to thousands of cases in mostly rural populations, but only a few cases of severe neurological disease had been reported. The occurrence between 1996 and 1999 of three major epidemics, in southern Romania, the Volga delta in southern Russia, and the northeastern United States, involving hundreds of cases of severe neurological disease and fatal infections was totally unexpected. These were the first epidemics reported in large urban populations. A significant factor that appeared in common to all three outbreaks was the apparent involvement of the common house mosquito, Culex pipiens, as a vector. This species had not previously been implicated as important in the transmission of West Nile virus. In addition the epidemic in the northeastern United States was unusual in the association of West Nile virus infection with fatal disease of birds, suggesting a change in the virulence of the virus toward this host. Understanding the risk factors that contributed to these three urban epidemics is important for minimizing the potential for future occurrences. This review will attempt to compare observations on the biology of West Nile virus made over about 60 years prior to the recent epidemics to observations made in association with these urban epidemics.

  • Hayes, R. O., C. H. Tempelis, A. D. Hess and W. C. Reeves. 1973. Mosquito Hosts Preference Studies in Hale, County, Texas. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 22:270-277. 
  • Hayes, W.J. and E. R. Laws Jr. 1991. "Repellents." Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology. Academic Press: San Diego. Section 22.4.
  • Heal, J.D., and G.A. Surgeoner. 1998. Laboratory Evaluation of the Efficacy of All Terrain, an Essential Oil-Based Product, to Repel Aedes aegypti Mosquitoes: Final Report. Unpublished, 7 pp.
    Contact: J.D. Heal and G. A. Surgeoner, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph Ontario Canada, NIG 2WI or All Terrain Company, 3275 Corporate View, Vista CA 92083, USA.

    Summary: The purpose of this study was to assess, under laboratory conditions, the efficacy of All Terrain (active ingredients: oils of citronella, cedar, peppermint, lemongrass, and geranium; combined concentration 19%; individual concentrations unknown; encapsulated in beeswax) to protect against Adedes aegypti mosquitoes. All Terrain provided levels of protection much better than other citronella-based formulations currently on the market. Protection levels provided by All Terrain Spray were similar to low concentration (5-7%) DEET-based products.

  • Heal, J. D., G. A. Surgeoner and Butler, S. M. 1997. Comparative Field Evaluation of the Efficacy of Buzz AwayTM and Three Commercially Available Products to Repel Aedes Mosquitoes in Southern Ontario: Final Report. Unpublished, 8 pp. Contact: J. D. Heal, G. A. Surgeoner, and S. M. Butler, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1 or Eve McClure, Quantum, Inc., 754 Washington Street, Eugene, Oregon 97401.

    Summary: The purpose of this study was to assess, under field conditions, the efficacy of Buzz AwayTM (5% citronella oil, 5.0%; essential oils of cedarwood, eucalyptus, lemon grass, and peppermint, concentrations not provided), Jungle JuiceTM (clove oil 1.0%, lemon oil 0.5% and peppermint oil 0.25%), NatrapelReg. (citronella oil 10.0%), and OFF! SkintasticTM (DEET 4.75% and related toluamides 0.25%) to protect against Aedes species mosquitoes in southern Ontario. Over the course of a 30 minute evaluation, and compared to bite counts from non-treated controls, Buzz AwayTM induced a 92.5% reduction in the number of mosquito bites 1 hour after application, and a 64.3% reduction 3 hours after application. Jungle JuiceTM induced a 15.0% reduction in the number of mosquito bites 1 hour after application, and a 17.1% reduction 3 hours after application. NatrapelReg. induced a 65.6% reduction in the number of mosquito bites 1 hour after application, and a 32.4% reduction 3 hours after application. OFF! SkintasticTM induced a 98.1% reduction in the number of mosquito bites 1 hour after application, and a 78.9% reduction 3 hours after application.

  • Heal, J.D., G.A. Surgeoner and L.R. Lindsay . 1995. Permethrin as a Tent Treatment for Protection Against Field Populations of Aedes Mosquitoes. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 11 (1): 99-102.

    Abstract: A tent treated with an oil-based 1% permethrin formulation (0.935 g AI/sq.m) was evaluated for protection against Aedes spp. Mosquito biting assessment was conducted in the field using 8 human subjects positioned inside and outside tents. Subjects inside tents received 66.8% fewer bites than subjects outside tents prior to treatment. Following treatment, subjects inside the treated tent had significant (P less than or equal to 0.05) protection (84-94% bite reduction) for 42 days. Subjects outside the treated tent experienced 43-82% fewer biting mosquitoes than subjects outside the untreated tent. The treated tent remained lethal greater than or equal to 42 days to mosquitoes exposed to the tent fabric in field bioassays.

  • Heal, J.D., G.A. Surgeoner, and L.R. Lindsay. 1997. Comparative Field Evaluation to Determine the Efficacy of Three DEET-Based Formulations to Repel Spring Aedes Species Mosquitoes in Ontario. Unpublished, 6 pp.
    Contact: J.D. Heal, G.A. Surgeoner, and L.R. Lindsay, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada or John Collins, Schering-Plough HealthCare, 6400 Northam Drive, Mississauga, Ontario, L4V 1J1.

    Summary: The purpose of this study was to assess, under field conditions, the efficacy of Muskol (registered trademark) (30% DEET), Deep Woods OFF! (registered trademark) (100% DEET = Deep Woods 1) and Deep Woods OFF! (registered trademark) (30% DEET = Deep Woods 2) for protection against spring Aedes species mosquitoes in Ontario. The results indicated that Muskol (30% DEET) provides adequate protection for a duration of eight hours and is similar in effectiveness to Deep Woods OFF! (100% DEET). Both of these products were superior to Deep Woods OFF! (30% DEET) at 7.5-8.0 hours post-application.

  • Hicks, Lebelle. Human Health and Environmental Relative Risks of WNV Mosquito Control Products. Maine Board of Pesticides Control. May 4, 2001.

    Excerpts from the Executive Summary: "The objective of this document is to provide the risk managers with the most current information regarding the human health and environmental risks from mosquito insecticides, both for adult and larval mosquitoes.... In this report, two types of information are presented. First, mosquito products are evaluated for absolute risks by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).... Second, the Board of Pesticides Control (BPC) made the assumption that EPA’s process covered absolute risks and that the endpoint of endpoing of concern is the risk of one product relative to other products used in a similar manner. Because of this, a relative risk approach was taken, and the use rate in mg/Acre was used as a surrogate for exposure. This information is summarized in the text and detailed information provided in the appendices.... This is an assessment of the active ingredients of five adulticide products (used on adult mosquitoes) and five larvicide products (used on immature life stages of mosquitoes) identified on EPA’s Mosquito Control Fact Sheets (68)...this review covers the ones with public health and municipal sites on the label (Appendix II)."

  • Hopkins, C.C., F.B. Hollinger, R.F. Johnson, H.J. Dewlett, V.F. Newhouse, and R.W. Chamberlain 1975.The Epidemiology of St. Louis Encephalitis in Dallas, Texas, 1966. American Journal of Epidemiology 102: 1-15.

    Abstract: An epidemic of St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) occurred in Dallas, Texas, in the summer of 1966. A total of 545 suspected cases within Dallas city and county were reported, of which 145 were laboratory-confirmed as SLE virus infection. The greatest concentration of cases occurred in lower socioeconomic areas of the central part of the city in black populations. The attack rate and mortality rate increased markedly with age. The overall attack rate was 15.2 per 100,000, with a case fatality rate of 9.7%. During the course of the epidemic, most of the county was sprayed aerially with an ultra-low volume (ULV), high-concentration malathion mist. The effects of this treatment cannot be adequately assessed from the human epidemiologic aspect alone, but the spraying clearly reduced the number and infection rate of the vector mosquitoes.

  • Horsfall, William Robert. 1955. Mosquitoes: Their Bionomics and Relation to Disease.Ronald Press: New York. 723 pp. 
  • Howard, John J. and JoAnne Oliver. 1997. Impact of Naled (Dibrom 14) on the Mosquito Vectors of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus. Journal of American Mosquito Control Association 13(4):315-25.

    Abstract: In central New York, aerial mosquito adulticide applications have been used in response to eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) outbreaks and have targeted the swamp habitats of the primary enzootic vector of EEE virus, Culiseta melanura (Coquillett). The organophosphate insecticide naled (1, 2, dibromo-2, 2-dichloroethyl dimethyl phosphate) has been the insecticide of choice in this region. This study reports on analyses of 11 years (1984-94) of mosquito collection data from Cicero and Toad Harbor swamps in relation to applications of naled. Naled applications were successful in achieving short-term reductions in mosquito abundance. However, despite repetitive applications, populations of the primary vector of EEE virus, Cs. melanura, have increased 15-fold at Cicero Swamp. Preventive applications had no noticeable impact on the enzootic amplification of EEE virus, and isolations of virus following preventive applications have resulted in additional spraying. The possibility that applications of naled contributed to increased populations of Cs. melanura discredits the rationale that preventive applications of naled reduce the risk of EEE.

    Authors are with New York State Department of Health, SUNY-College ESF, Syracuse 13210, USA.
    See (Moore 1998) for critique of this study.

  • Howard, Robert J. 2000. Getting It Right in Prime Time: Tools and Strategies for Media Interaction. 2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases 6(4 July-August 2000). http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol6no4/howard.htm

    Excerpts: Increasingly scientists are faced with the challenge of communicating with a public that may well have little understanding (or considerable misunderstanding) of their work...When the popular media seek answers and information for the public, a communications strategy that uses the concept of message development and delivers timely and accurate information is very effective...Flow of information to the media can be facilitated by the "single overriding communication objectives" (SOCOs) approach... The process requires that the investigator scan the entire empirical structure of available data for what needs to be at the top of the data pyramid for use by the consumer.

  • Huang C, Slater B, Rudd R, Parchuri N, Hull R, Dupuis M, et al. 2002.First Isolation of West Nile virus from a Patient with Encephalitis in the United States. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 8(12). http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol8no12/02-0532.htm

    Abstract: West Nile virus (WNV) was isolated from a patient who developed encephalitis while undergoing treatment with CHOP (cyclophosphamide, hydroxydoxorubicin, vincristine [Oncovin], predisone) and rituximab for a non-Hodgkin B-cell lymphoma. Both standard reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Taqman RT-PCR established the diagnosis of WNV infection from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Several whole blood samples and one serum sample underwent further testing. CSF and serum samples were negative for WNV antibody; however, all samples were positive by both RT-PCR assays. Infectious virus was recovered from a blood sample, and its identity was confirmed by using a WNV-specific immunofluorescence assay. The complete WNV genomes determined from CSF and from the virus isolate adapted from cell culture were the same. The results represent the first complete WNV genome sequence obtained directly from human CSF and the first time that infectious WNV has been recovered from a patient with encephalitis in North America.

  • Hubalek, Z. 2001. Commentary: Comparative Symptomatology of West Nile Fever. The Lancet 358(9278):254-255. [PDF]

    Excerpt: West Nile virus has now spread to the western hemisphere. The report in today's Lancet by Farzad Mostashari and colleagues of the seroepidemiology of the epidemic of West Nile encephalitis in New York 2 years ago raises questions about possible variation of West Nile fever in different parts of the world--eg, variations in ratio of clinical to symptom-free (or subclinical) infections, and differences in clinical picture.

    Commentary to Mostashari et al. article. 

  • Hubalek, Zdenek and Jiri Halouzka. 1996. Arthropod-bourne Viruses of Vertebrates in Europe. Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Brno 30:1-95.
  • Hubalek, Zdenek and Jiri Halouzka. September-October 1999. West Nile Fever § A Reemerging Mosquito-Borne Viral Disease in Europe. Emerging Infectious Diseases 5 (5): 643-650. pdf

    Abstract: West Nile virus causes sporadic cases and outbreaks of human and equine disease in Europe (western Mediterranean and southern Russia in 1962-64, Belarus and Ukraine in the 1970s and 1980s, Romania in 1996-97, Czechland in 1997, and Italy in 1998). Environmental factors, including human activities, that enhance population densities of vector mosquitoes (heavy rains followed by floods, irrigation, higher than usual temperature, or formation of ecologic niches that enable mass breeding of mosquitoes) could increase the incidence of West Nile fever.

  • Hulburt, H.S. 1956 West Nile Virus Infection in Arthropods. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 5:76-85.

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