West Nile Virus
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Katz Y., Shlomo Lustig, Izhar Ben-Shlomo, David Kobiler, David Ben-Nathan.
2002.
Inhalation anesthetic-induced neuroinvasion by an attenuated strain of
West Nile virus in mice.
Journal of Medical Virology.
66(4): 576-580.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext?ID=90510691&PLACEBO=IE.pdf
Abstract: There are contradictory reports regarding the effects of inhalation anesthetics on the immune system. Measurable immune responses have been studied in vitro, but little is known about the in vivo effects in the intact organism. We used an attenuated, non-neuroinvasive, nonlethal strain of the encephalitic West Nile virus, termed WN-25, which can become lethal in combination with environmental stressors, to study possible modulatory immune effects of inhalation anesthetics in mice. Both single short-term exposure and repeated exposure to halothane and nitrous oxide were studied. Exposure to 30% CO2 served as a positive control. Mortality, brain invasion, spleen weight, and antiviral antibodies served as the experimental endpoints. Halothane and nitrous oxide led to viral brain invasion, increased mortality, and suppressed immune response in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Repeated exposures had a cumulative effect. Assessment of the stability of the viral attenuation did not demonstrate any alteration in the character of the virus, suggesting an increased access to the brain by inhalation anesthetics that led to the fatal encephalitis. These findings may be of special concern to populations at risk, such as operating room staff and patients undergoing general anesthesia in endemic areas of encephalitic virus species, in which subclinical infection may develop into an overt disease.
- Kent, Robert. 1994. The
Development of the New Jersey Biological Control (Mosquito Fish) Program. Proceedings
of the 40th Annual Meeting of the Northeastern Mosquito Control Association, December
1994. . http://www.nmca.org/nmca94-16.htm.
Excerpt: As a continuing effort to control mosquitoes by way of the most efficient, economical and environmentally sound methods, mosquito larvae-eating fish have played an important role in New Jersey. Both saltmarsh and freshwater marsh native fish species have been encouraged to inhabit sites of mosquito production. The introduction of the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, has been an integral part of this effort for decades and decades. The pitfalls associated with using this species have varied. State and federal regulations regarding their use have been unclear. Stocking permits for this activity have been restrictive, difficult to understand and to obtain. The biology of the fish, its habitat, larvivorous efficiency and its colonization have often times eluded even experienced field biologists. Finally, the cost associated with the commercial procurement of Gambusia has made its full introduction into many programs a luxury. The approximate cost of the fish obtained from commercial hatcheries at this time was approximately fifty cents each. In 1990, as a result of a working relationship with the NJ Division of Fish, Game and Wildlife, an opportunity arose which inspired the concept of directly involving that Division's Bureau of Freshwater Fisheries in the colonization, stocking and surveillance of Gambusia affinis.
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Kilpatrick, Adams. 1996.Proceedings and Papers of the 35th Annual Conference of
the California Mosquito Control Association and the 23rd Annual Meeting of
the American Mosquito Control Association, Feb 5-8, 1967, San Francisco,
CA, p53.
Summary: Details the efforts and efficacy of an aerial spraying program to control an urban epidemic of St. Louis encephalitis in Dallas in 1966. See also Hopkins et al. 1975. The following are excerpts from a Nov11'00 posting to ProMED-mail from F. Blaine Hollinger, MD (blaineh@bcm.tmc.edu) about this epidemic and the efficacy of aerial spraying, in which the Kilpatrick and Hopkins papers are referenced:
"The presumed effectiveness of aerial spraying can be found in studies conducted in the 1960s. As a member of the Virology Division, Bureau of Laboratories, at the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), I [FBH] was part of a cooperative program between the CDC, the Texas State Health Department and the Dallas Health Department to investigate and control an urban epidemic of St. Louis encephalitis in Dallas in 1966. During this epidemic, ultra low volume (ULV) malathion was used for the first time to control such an outbreak by aerial spraying. The mosquito vector control program consisted of ULV application of 95% malathion at the rate of approximately 225 ml per hectare by low-flying US Air Force C-123 Globemaster aircraft. A total of approximately 1927 km2 of Dallas city and county were sprayed over 7 days in the early morning hours. I recall witnessing a "bugless" city during that interval. As described in the publications listed below, the program was highly effective in killing adult mosquitoes, but did not generally reduce the existing larval mosquito population.
The prime thrust during an epidemic such as this is to eliminate the infected adult mosquitoes as quickly as possible. Spraying is generally carried out with supplemental ground control with fogging. The efficacy of such a program on human cases is difficult to accurately evaluate. However, after the aerial spraying, there was a marked fall in the number of mosquito vectors and in their infection rate, which was felt to have effectively reduced vector transmission. While virus activity was reduced significantly, it was not entirely eliminated. However, immediately after spraying, the resting site counts dropped to near zero for about a week. It could be assumed that both infected and non-infected vector mosquitoes were reduced enough to temporarily reduce transmission to an ineffectual level. The hypothesis is that by the time surviving mosquitoes reemerge, viremia in infected birds will have either disappeared or declined to the point that the infection cycle might be broken."
- Kitron, Uriel, Donald W. Webb and Robert Novak. 1989. Oviposition Behavior of Aedes triseriatus (Diptera: Culicidae): Prevalence, Intensity, and Aggregation of Eggs in Oviposition Traps. Journal of Medical Entomology 26(5): 462-467.
- Kline, Daniel L. 1998. Olfactory
Responses and Field Attraction of Mosquitoes to Volatiles from Limburger Cheese and Human
Foot Odor. Journal of Vector Ecology 23 (2
Dec):186-94.
Abstract: Olfactory responses of female Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus) to various odor stimuli were studied in a dual-port olfactometer. Responses (i.e., the percent of ca. 75 available female mosquitoes in flight chamber entering each olfactometer port) were studied toward clean conditioned air (control), human foot skin emanations (collected on socks by wearing them for three days), human hand, and Limburger cheese. Mean percent response was greatest to the human hand (80.1%), followed by the human worn sock (66.1%), Limburger cheese (6.4%), and control (less than 0.1%). In field studies the worn sock alone attracted very few mosquitoes but a synergistic response occurred to the sock + carbon dioxide baited traps for most species of mosquitoes in six genera (Aedes, Anopheles, Coquillettidia, Culex, Culiseta, and Psorophora). This synergistic effect persisted even when the socks were exposed to environmental conditions for eight consecutive days. Limburger cheese alone did not attract mosquitoes to traps compared to unbaited traps, and there appeared to be a slight repellent effect for most mosquito species when used in combination with carbon dioxide.
Author is with the USDA, ARS, Gainesville, FL 32604, USA.
- Kline, Daniel L, Gene F. Lemire. 1998. Evaluation of Attractant-Baited Traps for Mosquito Management on Key Island, Florida, USA. Journal of Vector Ecology 23(2 Dec): 171-185.
Abstract: A three-year research project was conducted on Key Island, Collier County, Florida, USA, to evaluate an innovative attractant-based mosquito management technique. In the first year, species composition, relative abundance, and spatial distribution were determined. Although 16 species were collected, the dominant species was the black salt march mosquito, Aedes taeniorhynchus, which was the primary pest species. Efficacy of a single line barrier, consisting of 52 carbon dioxide (200 cc/min) + octenol (ca. 4 mg/h) baited traps (1994) or insecticide (lambdacyhalothrin) impregnated shade cloth targets (1995), spaces ca. 16.5 m apart, to reduce mosquito abundance in a resort area, was evaluated on the northern end of the island. Success was evaluated by means of baited surveillance traps located on both sides of the barrier. Traps and targets performed equally well. Though not statistically significant (p > 0.05), there was a reduction in mosquito abundance in the resort area when the barrier was functional. These data indicate that with refinement this mosquito management technique may be practical in certain situations.
- Kline, Daniel L. 1999. Comparison of two American Biophysics Mosquito Traps: The Professional and a new Counterflow Geometry Trap Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association, Inc. 15(3): 276-282.
Abstract: Large cage and field studies were conducted to compare the efficacy of 2 American Biophysics Corporation mosquito traps, the standard professional (PRO) trap and a new counterflow geometry (CFG) trap. The PRO trap utilizes conventional downdraft technology and the CFG trap uses a patent-pending technology. In large cage studies, similarly baited CFG traps captured approximately 1.7 times as many laboratory-reared Aedes taeniorhynchus as the PRO trap. The CFG trap baited with CO2 + octenol resulted in Significantly reduced landing counts compared to all other treatments; mean landing count was reduced from 233.8 (12.99/min), when no trap was present, to 24.7(1.37/min). In field studies against natural populations of woodland species, the CFG trap captured 7.8 times more mosquitoes than the PRO trap overall, and approximately 11 times more Anopheles crucians, Anopheles quadrimaculatus, and Culex erraticus.
Author is with the USDA, ARS, Gainesville, FL 32604, USA.
- Kline, Daniel L. 2002. Evaluation of various models of propane-powered mosquito traps. Journal of Vector Ecology 27(1): 1-7.
Abstract: Large cage and field studies were conducted to determine the efficacy of various models of propane-powered mosquito traps. These traps utilized counterflow technology in conjunction with catalytic combustion to produce attractants (carbon dioxide, water vapor, and heat) and a thermoelectric generator that converted excess heat into electricity for stand-alone operation. The cage studies showed that large numbers of Aedes aegypti and Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus were captured and that each progressive model resulted in increased trapping efficiency. In several field studies against natural populations of mosquitoes two different propane traps were compared against two other trap systems, the professional (PRO) and counterflow geometry (CFG) traps. In these studies the propane traps consistently caught more mosquitoes than the PRO trap and significantly fewer mosquitoes than the CFG traps. The difference in collection size between the CFG and propane traps was due mostly to Anopheles crucians. In spring 1997 the CFG trap captured 3.6X more An. crucians than the Portable Propane (PP) model in spring 1998 it captured 6.3X more An. crucians than the Mosquito Magnet Beta-1 (MMB-1) trap. Both the PP and MMB-1 captured slightly more Culex spp. than the CFG trap.
Author is with the USDA, ARS, Gainesville, FL 32604, USA.
- Kline, Daniel L. Large Cage and Field Comparison Tests of Mega Catch and Mosquito Magnet Traps USDA Field Research Results http://www.megacatch.com/klineUSDA.html
Abstract: The relative efficacy of various configurations of the Mega Catchª and Mosquito Magnetª mosquito traps were evaluated at three study sites: a large outdoor screen cage, a suburban residential backyard and a wildlife refuge. Laboratory reared Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus and Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus were used in the large cage studies. In these studies CO2-baited Mega Catchª traps caught nearly 2 times as many Ae. aegypti and nearly equal numbers of the other two species as the Mosquito Magnetª Pro trap. The Mega Catchª trap without CO2 caught several hundred less Ae. aegypti and only about 0.25 times as many Oc. taeniorhynchus as the CO2-baited configuration. Studies conducted in a suburban residential backyard indicated that the Mega Catchª trap, whether baited with CO2 or not, caught a larger variety of mosquitoes than the Mosquito Magnetª Pro: without CO2 it caught about the same quantity of mosquitoes as the Pro, with CO2 it caught ca. 3 times as many mosquitoes as the Pro. In the wildlife refuge several configurations of the Mega Catch trap were compared to the Mosquito Magnetª Pro and Residential models. The CO2 baited configurations of the Mega Catchª traps (dry and wet collection methods) caught many more mosquitoes than either the Pro or Residential traps. Mixed results were obtained in comparative trials with the no CO2 configurations. The Residential unit was the least effective in trapping mosquitoes in these trials. With the exception of the wet CO2 baited configuration, the Pro and Residential units caught more Culicoides spp biting midges.
Author is with the USDA, ARS, Gainesville, FL 32604, USA.
- Klingberg, M.A. W. Jasinska-Klingberg and N. Goldblum. 1958. Certain Aspects of the Epidemiology and Distribution of Immunity of West Nile Virus in Israel. Proceedings of the 6th International Congress of Tropical Medicine and Malaria 6:132-140.
Summary: At the time of this publication, Israel was the only country where epidemic West Nile fever had been recognized. Epidemics of varying intensity occurred in the human population in 6 of the 8 years beginning with first detection in 1950 (severe in 1950, 1953, 1957 with several hundred ill; lesser intensity with fewer affected in 1951, 1952 and 1954). Within a month after the first outbreak was detected in mid-July, 1950, it was at epidemic proportions: 636 cases of "overt disease" were recorded in a population of about 1000. Outbreaks consistently started suddenly in July, peaked in August-September and declined abruptly at end of September or early October. In some years there were two peaks. Total duration 8 weeks, with epidemic peaks 2-3 weeks. Epidemics were consistently located only in two places along the Mediterranean coast: 40 miles to the north of Tel Aviv and 15 miles to the SE.
"The immunity of the population living in the vicinity of the epidemic areas was studied by means of the CF reaction which indicates recent infection:"73% positive were found in endemic areas as compared with 7-12% in non-endemic areas. Among recent immigrants, CF antibodies were found in 5% of immigrants from Morocco as compared with 54% of immigrants from Egypt. It was noted that overnight visitors to epidemic areas became ill while day laborers did not (indicating that night-feeding mosquitoes were vectors) and that incidence was higher among those living in tents than in screened enclosures. Two species of culicine mosquitoes were most frequently caught: Culex molestus and C. univittatus.
- Klun, Jerome A., Da Ma, and Raj Gupta. 2000. Optically Active Arthropod Repellents for Use Against Disease Vectors. Journal of Medical Entomology 37(1): 182-187. http://www.entsoc.org/pubs/jme/jmetocs/PDF's/me010000182o.pdf
Abstract: Optically inactive 1-[3-cyclohexen-1-ylcarbonyl] piperidine and 1-[3-cyclohexen-1- ylcarbonyl]-2-methylpiperidine are repellents against blood-feeding arthropods. Pure stereoisomers of these compounds were synthesized and characterized for use in bioassays. Initial laboratory tests with the malaria vector Anopheles stephensi Liston showed that this species was repelled differentially by the stereoisomers of 1-[3-cyclohexen-1-ylcarbonyl]-2-methylpiperidine. Two stereoisomers were twice as repellent as the other stereoisomers. These results indicate that stereoisomerism influences repellent efficacy in this class of compounds.
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Komar N.,
2001.
West Nile Virus Surveillance using Sentinel Birds.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
951(1):58.
Abstract: Captive and free-ranging birds have been used for decades as living sentinels in arbovirus surveillance programs. This review summarizes information relevant to selecting sentinel bird species for use in surveillance of West Nile (WN) virus. Although experience using avian sentinels for WN virus surveillance is limited, sentinels should be useful for both detecting and monitoring WN virus transmission; however, sentinel bird surveillance systems have yet to be adequately tested for use with the North American strain of WN virus. Captive chickens are typically used for arbovirus surveillance, but other captive species may be used as well. Serosurvey and experimental infection data suggest that both chickens and pigeons show promise as useful captive sentinels; both species were naturally exposed during the epizootics in New York City, 1999-2000, and both species develop antibodies after infection without becoming highly infectious to Culex pipiens vectors. Wild bird species that should be targeted for use as free-ranging sentinels include house sparrows and pigeons. The ideal wild bird should be determined locally on the basis of seroprevalence studies. Interpreting serological data generated from studies using free-ranging sentinel birds is complex, however. Sentinel bird monitoring sites should be selected in enzootic transmission foci. Several years of observation may be required for selection of effective sentinel monitoring sites.
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Komar N, N Panella, E Boyce. 2001. Exposure of Domestic Mammals to West Nile Virus during an Outbreak of Human Encephalitits, New York City, 1999. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 7(4):736-8. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol7no4/komar1.htm
Abstract: We evaluated West Nile (WN) virus seroprevalence in healthy horses, dogs, and cats in New York City after an outbreak of human WN virus encephalitis in 1999. Two (3%) of 73 horses, 10 (5%) of 189 dogs, and none of 12 cats tested positive for WN virus- neutralizing antibodies. Domestic mammals should be evaluated as sentinels for local WN virus activity and predictors of the infection in humans.
- Komar, N., R. Lanciotti, R. Bowen, S. Langevin and M. Bunning. Detection of West Nile virus in oral and cloacal swabs collected from bird carcasses. Emerg Infect Dis July 2002 [cited 2002 May 30];8. Hard copy pp741-742. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol8no7/02-0157.htm.
Abstract: We evaluated if postmortem cloacal and oral swabs could replace brain tissue as a specimen for West Nile virus (WNV) detection. WNV was detected in all three specimen types from 20 dead crows and jays with an average ofÊ >105 WNV PFU in each. These findings suggest that testing cloacal or oral swabs might be a low-resource approach to detect WNV in dead birds.
- Komar, Nicholas, Nicholas A.
Panella, Joseph E. Burns, Stephen W. Dusza, Tina M. Mascarenhas, and Thomas O. Talbot.
2001. Serologic Evidence for West Nile Virus Infection in Birds in the New York City
Vicinity During an Outbreak in 1999. Emerging
Infectious Diseases 7(4): 621-625. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol7no4/komar2.htm
Abstract: As part of an investigation of an encephalitis outbreak in New York City, we sampled 430 birds, representing 18 species in four orders during September 13-23, 1999, in Queens and surrounding counties. Overall, 33% were positive for West Nile virus-neutralizing antibodies, and 0.5% were positive for St. Louis encephalitis virus-neutralizing antibodies. By county, Queens had the most seropositive birds for WNV (50%); species with the greatest seropositivity for WNV (sample sizes were at least six) were Domestic Goose, Domestic Chicken, House Sparrow, Canada Goose, and Rock Dove. One sampled bird, a captive adult Domestic Goose, showed signs of illness; WNV infection was confirmed. Our results support the concept that chickens and House Sparrows are good arbovirus sentinels. This study also implicates the House Sparrow as an important vertebrate reservoir host.
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Kramer, L.D., K.A. Bernard. 2001. West Nile Virus Infection in Birds and Mammals. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 951:84-93. http://www.annalsnyas.org/cgi/content/full/951/1/84
Abstract: West Nile virus (WNV) was found throughout New York State in year 2000. The epicenter was located in New York City with a high level of activity in the immediately surrounding counties, including Rockland, Westchester, Nassau, and Suffolk. During 2000, WNV testing was performed by the Wadsworth Center on 3,687 dead birds, representing 153 species, 46 families, and 18 orders. There were 1,203 WNV-positive birds, representing 63 species, 30 families and 14 orders. The percentage of WNV-positive birds was 33% for all birds tested throughout the state, with no significant difference in infection rates in migratory versus resident birds, although significantly more resident birds were submitted for testing. The highest apparent mortality for the entire season was observed in American crows in Staten Island, a location that also showed the highest minimal infection rate in Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes. Studies examining tissue tropism of WNV in corvids and noncorvids from the epicenter and from remote locations indicated that the kidney was the most consistently infected tissue in birds, regardless of level of infection. The brain was the next most consistently positive tissue. The differences in infection among the tissues were most apparent when low levels of virus were present. Experimental mouse inoculation demonstrated a classical flavivirus infection pattern.
