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Modified:
Nov 5, 2004
West Nile Virus

West Nile Virus
Bibliography of Scientific Literature (L)

  • Lacey, L.A. 1990. Persistence and Formulation of Bacillus sphaericus pp. 284-294 in H. de Barjac and D.J. Sutherland ,eds. Bacterial Control of Mosquitoes and Blackflies: Biochemistry, Genetics and Applications of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus. Rutgers University Press, Rutgers, NJ.
  • Laird, Marshall, Lester Calder, Richard C. Thornton, Rachel Syme, Peter W. Holder and Motoyoshi Mogi. 1994. Japanese Aedes albopictus among Four Mosquito Species Reaching New Zealand in Used Tires. Journalof the Amercan Mosquito Control Association 10(1):14-23.

    Abstract:Since a 1988-89 survey of northern New Zealand revealed no additions to the known mosquito fauna, this country's used tire importations have much increased. Relevant entomological quarantine was thus monitored in a November 1992-January 1993 Auckland project, during which almost 1/3 of 8,549 casings from Japan proved wet on inspection. In this study and at two South Island ports afterwards, five vessels from Japan and one from Australia were found to have brought in mosquito-infested used tires. Live Aedes albopictus (all larval instars, pupae, and adults) and Aedes japonicus, and dead Tripteroides bambusa were discovered in shipments from Japan (3 interceptions each in the first 2 cases, and one in the 3rd). Live Tripteroides tasmaniensis were recorded from the Australian cargo. One of the Ae. albopictus arrivals was followed by an apprehended introduction at an Auckland importer's premises.
  • Lake, R.W. and R. G. Weber. 1986. Piperonyl-butoxide-Synergized Resmethrin as an Aerially Applied Mosquito Adulticide. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the N J Mosquito Control Association, Cape May 73:50-55.

    Abstract:Field trials were conducted in Delaware during July and August 1983 to test the effectiveness of a commercial resmethrin formulation synergized with piperonyl butoxide against adult mosquitoes. The product was diluted in soybean oil and applied from the air as a ULV mist at 3.93 q a.i./ha in July, and in August at 1.96 q a.i./ha (swath width 76.2m; airspeed 241.4 km/h; nozzles flat fan Tee-jet No.8001 set facing 35 deg forwards; altitude 23 m). For caged field-collected females of Aedes sollicitans, the average mortality at 4 hours posttreatment was 95.4 and 95% at the 3.93-q and 1.96-q application rates, respectively. At 24 hours posttreatment, the 3.93-q rate produced 98.3% mortality. The 1.96-q rate produced 98.7% mortality 17.5 hours after treatment. Light-trap catches at the trial site taken 24 hours before and after the July treatment showed that the field population of mosquitoes was reduced by 96.7%. 
  • Lampman, Richard, Ute Eckenbach, David Seigler, and Robert Novak. 2000. Laboratory Evaluations of Methylated Soy Oil and Monoterpenes as Mosquito Larvicides. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association. 16(2):153-157.

    Abstract: The larvicidal toxicities of methylated soy oil (MSO) and surfactant combinations were compared to 2 commercially available oil larvicides (Golden Bear Oil 1111® and Bonide®) in standard laboratory bioassays of 4th-stage larvae of Culex pipiens Linn. The dose lethal to 50% of the test organisms (LD50) and the dose lethal to 95% of the test organisms (LD95) values are presented as microliters per beaker (treatment surface area of 54 cm2). The surfactant-MSO mixtures differed significantly in their toxicity to Cx. pipiens larvae; 2% Pyroter CPI-40® in MSO was more toxic than 2%Pluronic L121® in MSO (LD50 = 3.8 microliters per 54 cm2 and 11.3 microliters per 54 cm2, respectively). The 2 most active larvicides were Golden Bear Oil (LD50 = 3.6 microliters per 54 cm2) and the 2% Pyroter-MSO mixture. These 2 were not significantly different from each other. Bonide (LD50 = 6.2 microliters per 54 cm2) and the Pluronic L121-MSO mixture (LD50 = 11.3 microliters per 54 cm2) were less toxic than Golden Bear Oil and the MSO-Pyroter mixture and they were significantly different from each other. Bioassays with 4th-stage larvae of Anophelse stephensi Liston showed toxicity of the Pyroter-MSO formulations increased about 2-fold from 18oC to 24oC (LD50 = 20.5 microliters per 54 cm2 and 11.8 microliters per 54 cm2, respectively). The laboratory bioassays suggest that MSO mixed with surfactants are potential mosquito larvicides. We also evaluated the influence of the 2 surfactants on the toxicity of 3 monoterpenes. The larvicidal activity of citral and limonene increased with the addition of surfactants, but neither surfactant enhanced the toxicity of cineole. All 3 monoterpenes, with and without surfactants, were considered poor candidates as surface larvicides because of their high volatilities.
  • Lampman, Richard, Scott Hanson and Robert Novak. 1997. Seasonal Abundance and Distribution of Mosquitoes at a Rural Waste Tire Site in Illinois. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 13(2):193-200.

    Abstract: The species composition, abundance, and distribution of mosquito larvae in tires were determined on 3 dates at a relatively large rural tire dump (about 300,000 tires) in southeastern IL (Jasper County). Several observations at the site differed from those in previous reports about mosquitoes in tireyards, including 1) a relatively high percentage of tires positive for Aedes triseriatus larvae in an open-field area, 2) a greater abundance of Culex pipiens than Cx. restuans in late season collections, 3) a seasonal change in the distribution of Aedes atropalpus larvae in tires from open field and edge of woods areas, and 4) the presence of Ae. albopictus as a major late-season species. Ae. albopictus adults were captured in sod-baited gravid traps along the edge of a wooded riparian area 200 m from the tire pile.
  • Lanciotti, R.S. et al. 1999. Origin of the West Nile Virus Responsible for an Outbreak of Encephalitis in the Northeastern United States. Science 286 (17 December): 2333-2337.

    Abstract: In late summer 1999, an outbreak of human encephalitis occurred in the northeastern United States that was concurrent with extensive mortality in crows (Corvus species) as well as the deaths of several exotic birds at a zoological park in the same area. Complete genome sequencing of a flavivirus isolated from the brain of a dead Chilean flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis), together with partial sequence analysis of envelope glycoprotein (E-glycoprotein)) genes amplified from several other species including mosquitoes and two fatal human cases, revealed that West Nile (WN) virus circulated in natural transmission cycles and was responsible for the human disease. Antigenic mapping with E-glycoprotein-specific monoclonal antibodies and E-glycoprotein phylogenetic analysis confirmed theses viruses as WN. This North American WN was most closely related to a WN virus isolated from a dead goose in Israel in 1998.
  • Lanciotti, R.S. et al. 2002. Complete Genome Sequences and Phylogenetic Analysis of West Nile Virus Strains Isolated from the United States, Europe, and the Middle East. Virology 298: 96-105.

    Abstract: The complete nucleotide sequences of eight West Nile (WN) virus strains (Egypt 1951, Romania 1996-MQ, Italy 1998-equine, New York 1999-equine, MD 2000-crow265, NJ 2000MQ5488, NY 2000-crow3356) were determined. Phylogenetic trees were constructed from the aligned nucleotide sequences of these eight viruses along with all other previously published complete WN virus genome sequences. The phylogenetic trees revealed the presence of two genetic lineages of WN viruses. Lineage 1 WN viruses have been isolated from the northeastern United States, Europe, Israel, Africa, India, Russia, and Australia. Lineage 2 WN viruses have been isolated only in sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar. Lineage 1 viruses can be further subdivided into three monophletic clades.
  • Lawler, Sharon P., Truls Jensen, Deborah A. Dritz, and George Wichterman,. 1999. Field Efficacy and Nontarget Effects of the Mosquito Larvicides Temephos, Methoprene, and Bacillus Thuriniensis Var. Israelensis in Florida Mangrove Swamps. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association.15(4):446-452. 1999.

    Abstract: We compared the efficacy and nontarget effects of temephos, Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (B.t.i.), and methoprene applied by helicopter to control mosquito larvae in mangrove swamps on Sanibel Island, FL, in May 1997. Three sites per treatment and 3 untreated sites were used. Temephos (Abate™) was applied at 37 ml/ha (43% active ingredient [AI], B.t.i. granules (Vectobac G™) were applied at 5.606 kg/ha (200 International Toxic Units/mg), and methoprene (Altosid™ ALL) was applied at 213 ml/ha (5% AI). Efficacy was quantified by monitoring the survival of caged and uncaged larval Aedus taeniorhynchus . We quantified mortality of sentinel nontarget amphipods (Talitridae) at all sites, monitored the effect of temephos on flying arthropods using light traps, and collected dead insects in tarps suspended under mangroves in areas treated with either temephos or methoprene. Each pesticide showed good overall efficacy but occasional failures occurred. No detectable mortality of amphipods or flying insects attributable to pesticides was found. The inconsistent field efficacies of the pesticides indicate a need for reinspection of treated sites in this habitat. 
  • Layton, M.C. 1996. Malaria in New York City. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 73(2):456-458. http://www.nyam.org/nyam/.
  • Layton, M.C., M.E. Parise, C.C. Campbell, et al. 1995. Mosquito-transmitted Malaria in New York City, 1993. The Lancet 346:729-731. http://www.thelancet.com/. 
  • Lederberg, Joshua. 1998. Emerging Infections: An Evolutionary Perspective. Emerging Infectious Diseases 4 (3):336-371.

    Abstract: Our relationship to infectious pathogens is part of an evolutionary drama (1). Here we are; here are the bugs. They are looking for food; we are their meat. How do we compete? They reproduce so quickly, and there are so many of them. They tolerate vast fluctuations of population size as part of their natural history; a fluctuation of 1% in our population size is a major catastrophe. Microbes have enormous potential mechanisms of genetic diversity. We are different from them in every respect. Their numbers, rapid fluctuations, and amenability to genetic change give them tools for adaptation that far outpace what we can generate on any short-term basis.
    So why are we still here? With very rare exceptions, our microbial adversaries have a shared interest in our survival. With very few exceptions (none among the viruses, a few among the bacteria, perhaps the clostridial spore-forming toxin producers), almost any pathogen reaches a dead end when its host is dead. Truly severe host-pathogen interactions historically have resulted in elimination of both species. We are the contingent survivors of such encounters because of this shared interest.
  • Le Duc, J. W., W. Suyemoto, B. F. Eldridge and E. S. Saugstad. 1972 . Ecology of Arboviruses in a Maryland Freshwater Swamp. II. Blood feeding Patterns of Potential Mosquito Vectors. American Journal of Epidemiology 96:123-28.
  • Le Guenno B., A. Bougermouh, T. Azzam and R. Bouakaz. 1996.West Nile: A Deadly Virus?Lancet, London. 348:1315. http://www.thelancet.com/.
  • Lee, Sung-Eun. 2000. Mosquito Larvicidal Activity of Pipernonaline. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association. 16(3):245-247.

    Abstract:     A methanol extract of Piper longum fruit was found to be active against mosquito larvae of Culex pipiens pallens at 10 µg/ml after 24 h. A piperidine alkaloid, pipernonaline, was found to be responsible for this activity, with the 24-h median lethal dose (LD50) value for this compound being 0.21 mg/liter. The LD50 value of pipernonaline was not much higher than those for the 3 organophosphorous insecticides malathion, chlorpyrifos-methyl, and pirimiphos-methyl, used for comparative purpose in this study. Structural elucidation of pipernonaline was by means of mass spectrometry (1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance imaging).
  • Leis, A. A. et al. 2002. A poliomyelitis-like syndrome from West Nile virus infection. New England Journal of Medicine, published online (2002). [pdf]
  • Lenormand, Thomas, Denis Bourguet, Thomas Guillemaud and Michel Raymond. 1999. Tracking the Evolution of Insecticide Resistance in the Mosquito Culex pipiens. Nature 400: 861-864.

    Abstract:     The evolution of pesticide resistance provides some of the most striking examples of darwinian evolution occurring over a human life span. Identification of resistance alleles opens an outstanding framework in which to study the evolution of adaptive mutations from the beginning of pesticide application, the evolution of interactions between alleles (dominance) or between loci (epistasis). Here we show that resistance alleles can also be used as markers to dissect population processes at a microevolutionary scale. We have focused on the antagonistic roles of selection and migration involved in the dynamics of local adaptation with reference to allelic frequencies at two resistance loci in the mosquito Culex pipiens. We find that their frequencies follow an annual cycle of large amplitude (25%), and we precisely unravel the seasonal variation of migration and selection underlying this cycle. Our results provide a firm basis on which to devise an insecticide treatment strategy that will better control the evolution of resistance genes and the growth of mosquito populations.
  • Levins, Richard, Tamara Auerbuch, Uwe Brinkmann, Irina Eckardt, Paul R. Epstein, Tim Ford, Najwa Makhoul, Christina dePossas, Charles Puccia, Andrew Spielman and Mary E. Wilson. 1994. The Emergence of New Disease. American Scientist 82(1): 52-60. 
  • Lindsay, L.R., J.D. Heal and G.A. Surgeoner. August 1996. Comparative Evaluation of the Efficacy of Bite Blocker, OFF! Skintastic, and Avon Skin-So-Soft to Protect Against Aedes Species Mosquitoes in Ontario: Final Report. Unpublished, 5 pp. Contact: L.R. Lindsay, G. A. Surgeoner and J. D. Heal, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada or Gary Sheppard, Chemfree Environment Inc., 16763 Hymus Blvd., Kirkland, Quebec Canada H9H 3L4.

    Introduction:    The purpose of this study was to compare, under field conditions, the relative efficacy of Bite Blocker Reg. (Batch No. 199607023, active ingredients: 2.0% soybean oil), OFF! Reg. Skintastic spray (6.65% N, N-diethyl-M-toluamide), and Avon Reg. Skin-So-Soft mosquito, flea and deer tick repellent (0.05% oil of citronella) to protect against Aedes mosquitoes in Ontario.

    Results:     The number of bites received by subjects treated with Bite Blocker Reg. applied at 30, 90, and 120 minutes prior to exposure to mosquitoes did not differ significantly from the number of bites received by subjects treated with OFF! Reg. Skintastic applied at 30 and 90 minutes prior to exposure (P greater than 0.5). There was no signifcant difference between the number of mosquitoes biting subjects treated with Avon Reg. Skin-So-Soft when this product was applied at 30, 90 or 210 minutes prior to exposure to mosquitoes (P~ 0.2). When subjects were treated at 210 minutes prior to exposure to mosquitoes, the number of mosquitoes biting subjects treated with OFF! Reg. Skintastic was significantly higher that the biting count for subjects treated with Bite BlockerReg. (P~0.001) and significantly less than the number biting subjects treated with Avon Reg. Skin-So-Soft (P less than 0.001). The percent repellency provided by three repellents varied among the different products. Avon Reg. Skin-So-Soft provided a 39.6-56.8% reduction in the number of bites compared with the non-treated subjects. Bite Blocker Reg. reduced mosquito biting by 97.0-99.2% whereas OFF! Reg. Skintastic provided from 85.8-100% repellency compared with non-treated subjects. During the biting count evaluations, ambient air T ranged from 16.4-22.8 degrees C, relative humidity ranged from 69.8-90.8% and wind was always less than 10 km per h and typically less than 5 km per h. None of the subjects noted any adverse effects after the products were applied. [Results are accompanied by 3 tables.]
  • Lindsay, L.R., G.A. Surgeoner and J.D. Heal. 1996. Field Evaluation of the Efficacy of Three DruideReg. Citronella-Based Repellents to Protect Against Aedes Species Mosquitoes in Ontario: Final Report. Unpublished, 8 pp. Contact: L.R. Lindsay, G. A. Surgeoner and J. D. Heal, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada or Vincent LeCorne, Laboratoires Druide, 154, Prom. Oneida, Pointe-Claire, Quebec H9R 1A8.

    Summary:    The purpose of this study was to assess, under field conditions, the efficacy of three DruideReg. citronella-based products (lotion, milk and sunblock formulations; active ingredients: 10% oil of citronella and 5% terpene of citronella) to protect against Aedes species mosquitoes. The complete protection time was calculated for each product, complete protection being 95% fewer bites than non-treated controls. The complete protection time provided by the three candidate repellents varied from 7 to 60+ minutes and the milk formulation had a significantly longer complete protection time than the other two candidate repellents. All of candidate repellents reduced the number of mosquitoes biting by 95% over the 1st and 2nd 30 minutes after application, although the lotion and milk formulations were more effective than the sunblock formulation during the 2nd 30 minutes following product application. 
  • Lindsay, L.R., G.A. Surgeoner and J.D. Heal. Undated. Evaluation of WalkaboutReg. (2.8%) citronella) as a Repellent Against Summer Aedes spp. Mosquitoes. Unpublished, 5pp. Contact: J. D. Heal, G. A. Surgeoner, and S. M. Butler, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1.

    Summary    : The purpose of this study was to access, under field conditions, the efficacy of the 2.8% oil of citronella product, WalkaboutReg., for protection against summer Aedes spp. mosquitoes. The WalkaboutReg. oil significantly reduced the number of mosquitoes biting treated subjects. The average percent repellency that this product provided over the one hour evaluation period was excellent (greater than 96.0%). Complete protection times were variable although on 5 to 8 instances, CPT was at least 30 minutes. As a result, consumers with a low tolerance to mosquito bites will likely have to reapply this product at 30 minute intervals to maintain 95-100% protection. Although this level of protection provided by WalkaboutReg. is less than would be anticipated with a comparable DEET-based formulation, the "organic" nature of the active ingredients will likely appeal to some consumers.
  • Lindsay, L.R., G.A. Surgeoner, J.D. Heal, and G.J. Gallivan. 1996. Evaluation of the Efficacy of 3% Citronella Candles and 5% Citronella Incense for Protection Against Field Populations of Aedes Mosquitoes. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 12 (2): 293-294.

    Abstract:     We assessed the efficacy of 3% citronella candles and 5% citronella incense in protecting subjects from bits of Aedes spp. under field conditions. The study was conducted in a deciduous woodlot in Guelph, Ontario, Canada from July 26 to August 10, 1995. Eight subjects, dressed identically, were assigned to one of 8 positions on a grid within the study area. Two citronella candles, 2 citronella incense, 2 plain unscented candles, or no candles (i.e. nontreated controls) were assigned to 2 positions on the grid each evening. Subjects conducted 5-min biting counts at each position and performed 16 biting counts per evening. On average, subjects received 6.2 +/- 0.4, 8.2 +/- 0.5, 8.2 +/- 0.4, and 10.8 +/- 0.5 bites/ 5 minutes at positions with citronella candles, citronellaincense, plain candles, and no candles, respectively. Although significantly fewer bites were received by subjects at positions with citronella candles and incense than at nontreated locations, the overall reduction in bites provided by the citronella candles and incense was only 42.3% and 24.2%, respectively.
  • Lindsay, Steve, Juliet Ansell, Colin Selman, Val Cox, Katie Hamilton and Gijs Walraven. June 3, 2000. Effect of Pregnancy on Exposure to Malaria Mosquitoes. The Lancet. London. 355:1972. http://www.thelancet.com/.

    Abstract:     Pregnant women attracted twice the number of Anopheles Gambiae complex -- the predominant African malaria-carrying mosquito -- than did their non-pregnant counterparts. We postulate that physiological and behavioral changes that occur during pregnancy are responsible for increased attractiveness, which could be important in intervention strategies aimed at protecting this high-risk group against malaria.
  • LOBSTER-L: Unmoderated open listserv for formal and informal discussions regarding health problems of northern lobsters--Homarus americanus, the die-off in Long Island Sound, lobster research, etc. Subscribe by sending an email to Listserv@UConnvm.UConn.Edu . Put SUBSCRIBE LOBSTR-L [YOUR FULL NAME] (not your email address) in the body of your message. LOBSTER-L is supported by the University of Connecticut and administered by Nancy Balcom (balcom@unconnvm.uconn.edu), Connecticut Sea Grant, 1084 Shennecossett Road, Groton, CT 06340, USA, (860) 405-9109.
    LOBSTER-L may be of relevance to those interested in West Nile Virus because the suggested link between pesticides used for West Nile Virus mosquito control and non-target impacts on lobsters may be discussed.
  • Lord, R.D. and C.H. Calisher. 1970. Further Evidence of Southward Transport of Arboviruses by Migratory Birds. American Journal of Epidemiology 92:73-78.
  • Loroño-Pino MA, Blitvich BJ, Farfán-Ale JA, Puerto FI, Blanco JM, Marlenee NL, Rosado-Paredes EP, García-Rejón JE, Gubler DJ, Calisher CH, Beaty BJ. July 2003. Serologic Evidence of West Nile Virus Infection in Horses, Yucatan State, Mexico. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9(2). http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol9no7/03-0167.htm

    Abstract: Serum samples were obtained from 252 horses in the State of Yucatan, Mexico, from July to October 2002. Antibodies to West Nile virus were detected by epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays in three (1.2%) horses and confirmed by plaque reduction neutralization test. We report the first West Nile virus activity in the State of Yucatan.

  • Lvov, D.K., A.M. Butenko, V.L. Gromashevsky, V.Ph. Larichev, S.Ya. Gaidamovich, O.I. Vyshemirsky, A.N. Zhukov, V.V. Lazorenko, V.N. Salko, A.I. Kovtunov, Kh.M. Galimzyanov, A.E. Platonov, T.N. Morozova, N.V. Khutoretskaya, E.O. Shishkina and T.M. Skvortsova. 2000 . Isolation of Two Strains of West Nile Virus during an Outbreak in Southern Russia, 1999.Emerging Infectious Diseases 6(4 July-August 2000). http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol6no4/lvov.htm.

    Abstract:     From July to September 1999, a widespread outbreak of meningoencephalitis associated with West Nile virus (Flavivirus, Flaviviridae) occurred in southern Russia, with hundreds of cases and dozens of deaths. Two strains of West Nile virus isolated from patient serum and brain-tissue samples reacted in hemagglutination-inhibition and neutralization tests with patients' convalescent-phase sera and immune ascites fluid from other strains of West Nile virus.

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