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Modified:
Nov 5, 2004
West Nile Virus

West Nile Virus
Bibliography of Scientific Literature (M)

  • Maffei, Wesley A. 1997. An Abridged Bibliography of Selected Biorational Larvicides for California Mosquito Control. Alameda County Mosquito Abatement District. June 25, 1997. 

    Summary: An extensive bibliography of references from the scientific and gray literature on modes of action, non-target impacts, efficacy, methods of application, etc. for Bti (Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis ), Bacillus sphaericus , methoprene, Duplex (a combination of Bti and methoprene), Lagenidium giganteum and Golden Bear 1111 larvicidal oil. Developed for the purpose of assisting agencies using these materials in educating concerned citizens, landowners, regulatory agencies or new staff about how these larvicides work, their fate in the environment and their effects to non-target organisms.

  • Magnarelli, L. A. 1977. Host Feeding Patterns of Connecticut Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 26: 547-552.
  • Malkinson, M., C. Banet, Y. Khinich, I. Samina, S. Pokamunski and Y. Weisman. 2001. Use of Live and Inactivated Vaccines in the Control of West Nile Fever in Domestic Geese. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 951:255-261. http://www.annalsnyas.org/cgi/content/full/951/1/255

    Abstract: The recent epizootic of West Nile fever in Israel affected predominantly young domestic geese between three and eight weeks old. Clinically, the birds presented paralytic signs while morbidity and mortality were severe in affected flocks. The condition was encountered from early September through late November on goose farms located throughout the country. Losses incurred by goose flocks were sufficiently great as to warrant investigation of ways to protect young geese against the neurological form of the disease. We have conducted a series of vaccination trials in which three-week old geese were immunized with an attenuated, commercial flavivirus vaccine derived from Israel turkey meningoencephalitis virus (TME). Birds were challenged two weeks later with a low Vero cell passage of West Nile virus by the intracerebral route. In a second group of experiments, inactivated and live TME vaccines were given in tandem at an interval of two weeks and challenged two weeks later. The third vaccination trial was based on West Nile virus (WNV) harvested from infant mouse brain, inactivated with formalin and oil adjuvanted. A single injection given either subcutaneously or intramuscularly resulted in 75% protection of the vaccinated groups, while two injections spaced two weeks apart resulted in 94% protection. Groups of geese, vaccinated at the farms and challenged under controlled conditions in the laboratory, showed levels of protection ranging from 39% to 72% for TME vaccine and 52% and 80% for WNV vaccine. The lower levels of protection are attributable to flocks being affected with intercurrent infections at the time of vaccination

  • Malkinson, M., C. Banet, J. Weisman, S. Pokamonski and R. King. 1999. West Nile Fever; Recent Evidence for Intercontinental Dispersion [abstract VW28,03]. Program and abstracts: XI International Congress of Virology, Sydney:56.
  • Managing for West Nile Virus Infection in the USA. 2002. WILDPro. [CD-ROM] London: Wildlife Information Network. (http://www.wildlifeinformation.org)
    The WILDPro module is available on-line and as a CD-ROM (PC - Internet explorer).
    Preview: http://www.wildlifeinformation.org/PREVIEW_WILDPro.htm.

    Subscription Information: On-line access is restricted to subscribers. Subscription cost: US$52.50 for individuals, US$675 for institutions. For additional subscription information, including costs in Europe, see: http://www.wildlifeinformation.org/Subscribe_Now/General_Subscriptions.htm

    Preview Summary: This module is designed to provide information on West Vile Virus and West Nile Virus Infection in the light of the recent appearance of this disease in North America.

    The "Disease" page contains editorial summaries of the disease from a clinical viewpoint: pictures of lesions, information on susceptibility, disease characteristics & diagnosis including clinical signs, pathological findings etc, treatment & control, including vaccination. Linked from these summaries are pages giving detailed reports from the literature, closely referenced. The "Virus" page contains similar editorial summaries of the characteristics of the virus, including the structure and identification of the virus, the host species associated with the virus, its life cycle and transmission; physical and chemical factors which affect the virus and its biogeographical - climatic range. Once again these summaries are linked to detailed and closely referenced literature reports. The "Mosquitoes" section leads the user to information on the individual species of mosquito which have been recorded as intermediate hosts/vectors for this virus, while the "Mosquito Habitats" section provides information on the different habitat types in which mosquito species breed.

    The "Directory of Organisations" provides information on West Nile Virus in the USA. This section of the module is designed to provide easy access for the user to the multitude of organisations which provide information on West Nile Virus in the USA and its control. For each organisation, in addition to full contact details, an outline is given of the type of work in which the organisation is involved.

    The central "Managing for West Nile Virus" flowchart leads the user to the different aspects of surveillance and control. Separate pages cover Mosquito Surveillance, Bird Surveillance, Equine Surveillance and Human Surveillance, as well as Habitat Management, Biological Control, Chemical Control, Personal Protection and Vaccination which may be applied. These pages refer extensively to major federal and state Guidelines for management of West Nile Virus in particular and Arboviruses in general in the USA.

    As with all WILDPro modules, all information is closely referenced and is linked to relevant documents provided within the WILDPro Electronic Library.

    ERAP Bibliography Keywords: Mosquitoes, Other Arthropods; Aedes; Culex; West Nile Virus; Humans; Birds; Horses, Other Animals; Pesticides; Vector Control, Plans and Bio-Controls; Risk Analysis/Communication; Pyrethroids; Mosquito Adulticides: Misc; Larvicides; Mosquito Repellents Attractants;

  • Marberg, K., N. Goldblum, V. Stork, W. Jasinska-Klingberg and M. Klingberg. 1956. The Natural History of West Nile Fever. I. Clinical Observations during an Epidemic in Israel.American Journal of Hygiene 69:25969.
  • Marfin A. A., Lyle R. Petersen, Millicent Eidson, James Miller, James Hadler, Cheryl Farello, Barbara Werner, Grant L. Campbell, Marcelle Layton, Perry Smith, Edward Bresnitz, Matthew Cartter, Joseph Scaletta, Godwin Obiri, Michel Bunning, Robert C. Craven, John T. Roehrig, Kathleen G. Julian, Steven R. Hinten, Duane J. Gubler, and the ArboNET Cooperative Surveillance Group. 2001. Widespread West Nile Virus Activity, Eastern United States, 2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 7(4): 730-735. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol7no4/marfin.htm

    Abstract: In 1999, the U.S. West Nile (WN) virus epidemic was preceded by widespread reports of avian deaths. In 2000, ArboNET, a cooperative WN virus surveillance system, was implemented to monitor the sentinel epizootic that precedes human infection. This report summarizes 2000 surveillance data, documents widespread virus activity in 2000, and demonstrates the utility of monitoring virus activity in animals to identify human risk for infection.

  • Martindale, Diane. 12 August 2000. Dead in the Water: Lobsters are the First Victims of New York's Pesticide Frenzy. New Scientist. Search at: http://www.newscientist.com/.

    Summary: Lays out the argument that pyrethroids used for WNV mosquito control in 1999 and 2000 have contributed to the lobster decline in Long Island Sound, either directly or by lowering immune response and enabling onset of infection. "Researchers think that at the time of spraying [in September 1999], the heavy storms of Hurricane Floyd may have washed large amounts of insecticide down sewage drains. Many of these drains flow into Long Island Sound." The article reports that preliminary tests on lobsters in the Sound confirm the presence of traces of pyrethroid at levels close to the potentially fatal threshold of one part-per-billion, in fat near the tails of the crustaceans.

    Note:     This article is listed to provide background on this controversy; it is not, however, a scientific research or review article and did not undergo scientific peer review.
  • Mashimo, Tomoji, Marianne Lucasdagger , Dominique Simon-Chazottes, Marie-Pascale Frenkiel, Xavier Montagutelli, Pierre-Emmanuel Ceccaldi, Vincent Deubel, Jean-Louis Guénet, and Philippe Desprès. A nonsense mutation in the gene encoding 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase/L1 isoform is associated with West Nile virus susceptibility in laboratory mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99(17):11311-11316. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/17/11311

    Abstract: A mouse model has been established to investigate the genetic determinism of host susceptibility to West Nile (WN) virus, a member of the genus flavivirus and family Flaviviridae. Whereas WN virus causes encephalitis and death in most laboratory inbred mouse strains after peripheral inoculation, most strains derived from recently trapped wild mice are completely resistant. The phenotype of resistance/susceptibility is determined by a major locus, Wnv, mapping to chromosome 5 within the 0.4-cM-wide interval defined by markers D5Mit408 and D5Mit242. We constructed a high resolution composite/consensus map of the interval by merging the data from the mouse T31 Radiation Hybrid map and those from the homologous region of human chromosome 12q, and found the cluster of genes encoding 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetases (2'-5'-OAS) to be the most prominent candidate. This cluster encodes a multimember family of IFN-inducible proteins that is known to play an important role in the established endogenous antiviral pathway. Comparing the cDNA sequences of 2'-5'-OAS L1, L2, and L3 isoforms, between susceptible and resistant strains, we identified a STOP codon in exon 4 of the gene encoding the L1 isoform in susceptible strains that can lead to a truncated form with amputation of one domain, whereas all resistant mice tested so far have a normal copy of this gene. The observation that WN virus sensitivity of susceptible mice was completely correlated with the occurrence of a point mutation in 2'-5'-OAS L1 suggests that this isoform may play a critical role in WN pathogenesis.

  • Matsuda, Brent M., Gordon A. Surgeoner, James D. Heal, Arthur O. Tucker and Michael J. Maciarello. 1996. Essential Oil Analysis and Field Evaluation of the Citrosa Plant Pelargonium citrosum as a Repellent against Populations of Aedes Mosquitoes. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 12(1):69-74.

    Abstract:    A plant recently introduced into North America as the citrosa, Pelargonium citrosum ('Van Leenii'), has been marketed as a biological repellent against mosquitoes. Citrosa is claimed to repel mosquitoes within a 10 foot squared (0.93 meters squared) area due to a continuous fragrant release of citronella oil. The total essential oil yield was 0.2 +/- 0.1% from fresh plant material. Chemical analysis by the authors revealed that combined essential oils of fresh greenhouse- and field-grown citrosa have 35.4 +/- 6.2% geraniol, 10.4 +/- 1.6% citronellol, 8.9 +/- 2.0% isomenthone, and 6.8 +/- 3.8% linalool. Both the morphology and essential oil of citrosa fall within the Pelargonium X asperum hybrid complex and are similar to 'Rose', the commercial rose geranium. No character of morphology or essential oil of a Cymbopogon species yielding commercial citronella oil could be detected in the citrosa. The effectiveness of the citrosa as a repellent against field populations of spring Aedes species mosquitoes was evaluated and compared with a 75% DEET (N, N-diethy-3-methylbenxamide) formulation. DEET provided greater than 90% reduction in mosquitoes biting subjects for up to 8 hours post-treatment. There was no significant difference between citrosa-treated and nontreated subjects. 
  • Mattingly, P.F. 1969. The Biology of Mosquito-Borne Disease American Elsevier Publishing Company: New York and London. 182 pages. 
  • McCarroll, L., M.G. Paton, S.H.P.P. Karunaratne, H.T.R. Jayasuryia, K.S.P. Kalpage and J. Hemingway. 2000. Insecticides and Mosquito-Borne Disease. Nature (Brief Communications) 407 (Oct26):961 - 962.

    Summary:     The study found that mosquitoes (Culex quinquefasciatus) that are resistant to the insecticide fenthion express a certain esterase enzyme at high levels in several tissues including the gut, "resulting in a change in the redox potential in these cells " that could affect development of the Wuchereria bancrofti filarial nematode parasite. The authors use quantitative PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) to demonstrate a strong negative correlation between the amount of Wuchereria bancrofti RNA found in the mosquito and the esterase level. The study shows " that insecticide-resistant Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes are less likely to transmit filariasis than their insecticide-susceptible counterparts. If this surprising finding extends to other combinations of insect species, insecticide-resistance mechanisms and disease, it could have widespread consequences for the control of vector-borne disease. "
          "...Insecticide resistance is assumed to increase the likelihood of disease transmission by mosquitoes by increasing the population size and allowing mosquitoes to live longer in the presece of insecticide. We have tested the validity of this assumption in C. quinquefasciatus from Sri Lanka [where " lymphatic filariasis is endemic " and "since 1974 mosquitoes have been controlled by spraying their breeding sites fortnightly with the organophosphate fention. "]. C. quinquefasciatus uses one predominant resistance mechanism that occurs in more than 80% of insecticide-resistant Culex worldwide. "
          "... Filarial infection severly damages the mosquito host, often killing it. The spread of esterase-based insecticide resistance in field populations of C. quinquefasciatus may therefore be influenced by selection pressures for both insecticide detoxificaion and reduction of the microfilarial burden. " Corresponding author: Hemingway@cardiff.ac.uk.
  • McCarry, Mary J. 1996. Efficacy and Persistence of Altosid® Pellets Against Culex Species in Catch Basins in Michigan. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association. 12(1):144-146.

    Abstract:     Larvae of Culex pipiens and Cx. restuans in catch basins were exposed to Altosid® pellets (4% active ingredient, [S]-methoprene) applied at a rate of 11.3 kg/ha (7 g of pellets per catch basin). Under field conditions, the pellets yielded an average 82% emergence inhibition of adult mosquitoes over the 15-wk trial period. 
  • McIntosh, B.M., P.G. Jupp, I. Dos Santos and G.M. Meenehan. 1976. Epidemics of West Nile and Sindbis Viruses in South Africa with Culex univittatus Theobold as Vector. South African Journal of Science 72:295-300.
  • McLean R.G., J.P. Webb, E.G. Campos, J. Gruwell, D.B. Francy, D. Womeldork, C.M. Myers, T.H. Work and M. Jozan. 1988. Antibody Prevalence of St. Louis Encepahlitis Virus in Avian Hosts in Los Angeles, California, 1986. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 4: 524-528.
  • McLean RG, SR Ubico , D Bourne , N Komar. 2002. West Nile virus in livestock and wildlife. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 267:271-308.

    Abstract: WN virus is one of the most ubiquitous arboviruses occurring over a broad geographical range and in a wide diversity of vertebrate host and vector species. The virus appears to be maintained in endemic foci on the African continent and is transported annually to temperate climates to the north in Europe and to the south in South Africa. Reports of clinical disease due to natural WN virus infection in wild or domestic animals were much less common than reports of infection (virus isolation or antibody detection). Until recently, records of morbidity and mortality in wild birds were confined to a small number of cases and infections causing encephalitis, sometimes fatal, in horses were reported infrequently. In the period 1996-2001, there was an increase in outbreaks of illness due to WN virus in animals as well as humans. Within the traditional range of WN virus, encephalitis was reported in horses in Italy in 1998 and in France in 2000. The first report of disease and deaths caused by WN virus infection in domestic birds was reported in Israel in 1997-1999, involving hundreds of young geese. In 1999 WN virus reached North America and caused an outbreak of encephalitis in humans in the New York area at the same time as a number of cases of equine encephalitis and deaths in American crows and a variety of other bird species, both North American natives and exotics. Multi-state surveillance for WN virus has been in place since April 2000 and has resulted in the detection of WN virus in thousands of dead birds from an increasing number of species in North America, and also in several species of mammals. The surveillance system that has developed in North America because of the utility of testing dead birds for the rapid detection of WN virus presence has been a unique integration of public health and wildlife health agencies. It has been suggested that the recent upsurge in clinical WN virus infection in wild and domestic animals as well as in humans may be related to the emergence of one or more new strains of WN virus. Virus isolated in New York in 1999 was found to be identical to that from Israel. It was alarming for WN virus to so easily invade the United States and surprising that it became established so quickly in the temperature climate of New York. Its persistence and rapid expansion in the United States leave a number of unanswered questions. New disease characteristics and patterns have occurred and more are evolving as WN virus further invades the western hemisphere. Additional animal research is needed to answer these questions. Some of the research needs include bird migration as a mechanism of virus dispersal, vector and vertebrate host relationships, virus persistence mechanisms, laboratory diagnosis, viral pathogenesis, risk factor studies, vaccine development, and WN virus impact on wildlife (CDC 2001a). Determination of the primary reservoir host species that are involved in the epidemiology of WN virus and the suitable sentinel species for active surveillance are also important research areas.

  • McLean, R.G., S.R. Ubico, D.E. Docherty, W.R. Hansen, L. Sileo, and T.S. McNamara. 2001. West Nile Virus Transmission and Ecology in Birds. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 951 (1):54-57

    Abstract: The ecology of the strain of West Nile virus (WNV) introduced into the United States in 1999 has similarities to the native flavivirus, St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) virus, but has unique features not observed with SLE virus or with WNV in the old world. The primary route of transmission for most of the arboviruses in North America is by mosquito, and infected native birds usually do not suffer morbidity or mortality. An exception to this pattern is eastern equine encephalitis virus, which has an alternate direct route of transmission among nonnative birds, and some mortality of native bird species occurs. The strain of WNV circulating in the northeastern United States is unique in that it causes significant mortality in exotic and native bird species, especially in the American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos). Because of the lack of information on the susceptibility and pathogenesis of WNV for this species, experimental studies were conducted at the USGS National Wildlife Health Center. In two separate studies, crows were inoculated with a 1999 New York strain of WNV, and all experimentally infected crows died. In one of the studies, control crows in regular contact with experimentally inoculated crows in the same room but not inoculated with WNV succumbed to infection. The direct transmission between crows was most likely by the oral route. Inoculated crows were viremic before death, and high titers of virus were isolated from a variety of tissues. The significance of the experimental direct transmission among captive crows is unknown.

  • McMichael, Anthony J., Andrew Haines, Rudolf Slooff and Sari Kovats, eds. 1996. Climate Change and Human Health World Health Organization, World Meteorological Organization, United Nations Environmental Program. 
  • McNeeley, D.F., J. Lyons, S. Conte, A. Labowitz, M. Layton. 1998. Malaria Surveillance in New York City: 1991-1996. International Journal of Infectious Diseases 2(3):132-136. http://www.isid.org/isid/publications/ijid/vol_2/num_3/.

    Abstract:
    Background: The transmission of malaria has increased in recent years in many countries where it was once eradicated or under control, and malaria remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the developing world. Imported cases of malaria have been increasing in New York City and throughout the United States during the past decade. The New York City Department of Health has modified its malaria surveillance program in order to improve the assessment of diagnosis and treatment of malaria in New York City residents and to provide appropriate advice to health professionals who treat these patients.
    Objectives: To describe the epidemiologic and clinical characteristics of laboratory-confirmed cases of malaria diagnosed in New York City residents from January 1, 1991, through December 31, 1996.
    Methods: The retrospective study of case reports was carried out by the Malaria Surveillance Program of the Bureau of Communicable Diseases, New York City Department of Health, New York City, NY. It included the laboratory diagnosis of malaria and the species involved, and included also descriptive epidemiologic information of patients with malaria (age, sex, race/ethnicity, date and place of onset of illness, travel history, immigration status, previous history of malaria, history of blood transfusion, drugs used for treatment or prophylaxis), as well as a record of clinical complications of the infection (thrombocytopenia, hemolysis, anemia, cerebral malaria, renal failure, respiratory distress syndrome, fatal outcome).
    Results: Malaria was diagnosed in 988 residents of New York City during the 5-year period from January 1, 1991, through December 31, 1995. The largest number of cases, 254 (26%), occurred in 1996, with the majority of these cases (76%) observed between the months of May and October. Sixty-four percent (627) of these cases were males. The age range of cases was from newborn (first day of life) to 83 years (median, 31 years). Of the 962 cases of whom the racial/ethnic identity was known, 580 (59%) were black/non-Hispanic and 255 (26%) were Asian/Pacific Islander. Travel outside of the United States was reported by 958 patients, the majority to Africa (569/958, 59%). [Four cases of Malaria were contracted without travel to another country.] Only 139 patients (14%) claimed the use of malaria prophylaxis during travel. Plasmodium falciparum was identified in 505 (51%) and P. vivax in 356 (36%) of the cases. Clinical complications included hemolysis with severe anemia, thrombocytopenia, cerebral malaria, renal failure, and respiratory distress syndrome. All four fatal cases involved infections with P. falciparum, either alone or in combination with another plasmodia species.
    Conclusions: Imported cases of malaria occur frequently in New York City and may be associated with serious complications. Health care providers should consider this diagnosis in patients who have recently traveled or arrived from abroad, presenting with headache, fever, and other constitutional symptoms. There are many missed opportunities for the use of malaria prophylaxis, and physicians should familiarize themselves with current recommendations for malaria prophylaxis for travel to areas of the world where people are at risk for the transmission of malaria.

  • Means, Robert G. 1968. Host Preferences of Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae in Suffolk County, New York.) Annals of the Entomological Society of America 61: 116-120.
  • Means, Robert G. 1979 . Mosquitoes of New York: Part I. Aedes New York State Museum, Albany. Bulletin 430. 221 pp.
    ______. 1987. Part II: Genera of Culicidae other than Aedes Occurring in New York. New York State Museum, Albany. Bulletin 430b. ISSN 0278-3355, ISBN 1-5557-033-X.

    Abstract: Part I brings together systematically for the first time since 1904 much information regarding Aedes mosquitoes of New York. Keys for the identification of adults; pupae; first instar larvae and second, third and fourth instar larvae of mosquito genera; and the species of Aedesoccurring in New York are presented. Thirty-oneAedes species are reviewed, summarized, keyed and illustrated. Species treatment includes synonymy, descriptions of adults and immature stages, bionomics, distribution, disease relationships and pertinent literature. General information on methods of collecting and preserving, mosquitoes as disease vectors, bionomics, and structures used in toxonomic procedures are discussed. Attention is called to the increasing public health importance of Aedes mosquitoes as vectors of encephalitis viruses in New York, and the need for more detailed ecological studies of vector species. Three hundred and twenty-three figures are included. Part II deals with the other genera occurring in New York in much the same way.

  • Meek, C.L. and M. V. Meisch. 1997. Resistance in a Louisiana Strain of Culex quinquefasciatus to Selected Fyfanon Formulations.Southwestern Entomologist 22(4):449-452.

    Abstract:    Two Louisiana, USA, strains of C. quinquefasciatus (Denham Springs and Lake Charles) were held in screened cages mounted on stakes and exposed to ground ULV applications of malathion from a truck-mounted cold fog generator. Three formulations of malathion were evaluated in the field tests: (1)FyfanonULV (95% malathion); (2) Mixe (95% malathion + 0.5% natural pyrethrum [pyrethrins] + 2.5% piperonyl butoxide); and (3) Ready To Use (RTU) 4606 (95% malathion + 1.0% unsynergized pyrethrins). Significantly greater mortality (P,005) was observed in the Denham Springs strain at 1, 12 and 24 hours post-treatment for all formulations, as compared with the Lake Charles strain. With the exception of the 254 hour post-treatment for the Denham Springs strain, the Mix formulation provided significantly greater (P less than 0.05%) adult control at all post-treatment evaluation periods for both mosquito strains. At 24 hours post-treatment for the Denham Springs strain, Fyfanon provided as effective control as the Mix formulation (93% and (95%, respectively ). No test formulation provided effective control beyond 30.5 m from the spray route. Although initial knockdown was poor, malathion and the Mix formulations did provide excellent control at 24 hours post-treatment. 
  • Miller, J.E., S.W. Lindsay and J.R.M. Armstrong. 1991. Experimental Hut Trials of Bednets Impregnated with Synthetic Pyrethroid or Organophosphate Insecticide for Mosquito Control in The Gambia. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 5:465-476. 
  • Mitchell, D.J., D.B. Francy and T.P. Monath. 1980. Arthropod Vectors of St. Louis Encephalitis Virus. Chapter 7 in St. Louis Encephalitis edited by T.P. Monath, American Public Health Association, pp. 313-379.
  • Miura T, Sugamata M, Ogata T, Matsuda R. 1982. Japanese encephalitis virus infection in fetal mice at different stages of pregnancy. ACTA Virologica. 26(4):283-7.

    Abstract: The relationship between the stage of pregnancy of mice at the time of Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus inoculation and the resistance of JE virus infection of their offsprings was investigated. It was found that there was a stronger resistance to JE virus infection in offsprings born of mothers inoculated with JE virus at nine to sixteen days before parturition than in offsprings of mothers inoculated at one to eight days or at seventeen to twenty days before parturition. Resistance of the offsprings to JE virus infection lasted up to the age of 180 days after birth.

  • Monath, T.P. 2001. Prospects for Development of a Vaccine against the West Nile Virus. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 951:1-12. http://www.annalsnyas.org/cgi/content/full/951/1/1

    Abstract: Vaccination provides the ultimate measure for personal protection against West Nile disease. The development of a West Nile vaccine for humans is justified by the uncertainty surrounding the size and frequency of future epidemics. At least two companies (Acambis Inc. and Baxter/Immuno) have initiated research and development on human vaccines. West Nile encephalitis has also emerged as a significant problem for the equine industry. One major veterinary vaccine manufacturer (Ft. Dodge) is developing formalin-inactivated and naked DNA vaccines. The advantages and disadvantages of formalin-inactivated whole virion vaccines, Japanese encephalitis vaccine for cross-protection, naked DNA, and live attenuated vaccines are described. A novel technology platform for live, attenuated recombinant vaccines (ChimeriVaxTM) represents a promising approach for rapid development of a West Nile vaccine. This technology uses yellow fever 17D as a live vector for envelope genes of the West Nile virus. Infectious clone technology is used to replace the genes encoding the prM and E structural proteins of yellow fever 17D vaccine virus with the corresponding genes of West Nile virus. The resulting virion has the protein coat of West Nile, containing all antigenic determinants for neutralization and one or more epitopes for cytotoxic T lymphocytes. The genes encoding the nucleocapsid protein, nonstructural proteins, and untranslated terminal regions responsible for replication remain those of the original yellow fever 17D virus. The chimeric virus replicates in the host like yellow fever 17D but immunizes specifically against West Nile virus.

  • Monath, T.P. and F.X. Heinz. 1996. Flaviviruses Pages 961-997 in N.P. Fields, D.M. Knipe, and P.M. Howley, eds. Fields Virology Lippincott-Raven: Philadelphia, PA. 
  • Monath, Thomas P., Karen McCarthy, Philip Bedford, Casey T. Johnson, Richard Nichols, Sutee Yoksan, Ron Marchesani, Michael Knauber, Keith H. Wells, Juan Arroyo and Farshad Guirakhoo. 2002. Clinical proof of principle for ChimeriVax(TM): recombinant live, attenuated vaccines against flavivirus infections. Vaccine 20(7-8):1004-1018

    Abstract: ChimeriVax TM is a live, attenuated recombinant virus constructed from yellow fever (YF) 17D in which the envelope protein genes of YF 17D are replaced with the corresponding genes of another flavivirus. A ChimeriVax TM vaccine was developed against Japanese encephalitis (JE). A randomized, double-blind, outpatient study was conducted to compare the safety and immunogenicity of ChimeriVax TM -JE and YF 17D. Six YF immune and six non-immune adults were randomized to receive a single SC inoculation of ChimeriVax TM -JE (5 log10 PFU), ChimeriVax TM -JE (4 log10 PFU) or YF-VAX ® (5 log10 PFU). Mild, transient injection site reactions and flu-like symptoms were noted in all treatment groups, with no significant difference between the groups. Nearly all subjects inoculated with ChimeriVax TM -JE at both dose levels developed a transient, low-level viremia which was similar in magnitude and duration to that following YF-VAX ®. Neutralizing antibody seroconversion rates to ChimeriVax TM -JE was 100% in the high and low dose groups in both na¬õve and YF immune subjects; seroconversion to wild-type JE strains was similar or lower than to the homologous (vaccine) virus. Mean neutralizing antibody responses were higher in the ChimeriVax TM -JE high dose groups (na¬õve subjects LNI 1.55, PRNT50 254; YF immune subjects LNI 2.23, PRNT50 327) than in the low dose groups (na¬õve subjects 1.38, PRNT50 128; YF immune subjects LNI 1.62, PRNT50 270). JE antibody levels were higher in YF immune than in na¬õve subjects, dispelling concerns about anti-vector immunity. The safety and immunogenicity profile of ChimeriVax TM -JE vaccine appears to be similar to that of YF 17D. The new vaccine holds promise for prevention of JE in travelers and residents of endemic countries. The ChimeriVax TM technology platform is being exploited for development of new vaccines against dengue and West Nile.

  • Moore, Chester G. 1998. Letter to the Editor. Journal of American Mosquito Control Association 14(4):482-484.

    Abstract:     This letter questions the appropriateness of methodology used in a study by Howard and Oliver [1997. Impact of Naled (Dibrom 14) on the Mosquito Vectors of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus. JAMCA 13(4):315-25]. Two independent data sets, collected for different purposes by 2 different groups, were subjected to statistical analysis to determine if the data sets differed. The experimental "design," as described by the authors, is an example of pseudoreplication, which arises when replicates are collected at a scale finer than the one for which conclusions of statistical testing are intended to be drawn. All of the components of a properly designed field experiment (control, replication, randomization and interspersion) are missing from this study. The authors proceed to draw a series of conclusions from the data presented. Few, if any of the conclusions can be supported by the evidence presented. The assertions put forward int this paper could have a severe negative impact on efforts to prevent transmission of arboviruses or other pathogens to humans and domestic animals.

    Chester Moore is with the Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, CDC, Fort Collins. 

  • Moore, Chester G. and Carl J. Mtchell. 1997. Aedes albopictus in the United States: Ten-Year Presence and Public Health Implications. Emerging Infectious Diseases 3 (3):329-334.

    Abstract:     Since its discovery in Houston, Texas, in 1987, the Asian "tiger mosquito" Aedes albopictus has spread to 678 counties in 25 states. This species, which readily colonizes container habitats in the peridomestic environment, was probably introduced into the continental United States in shipments of scrap tires from northern Asia. The early pattern of dispersal followed the interstate highway system, which suggests further dispersal by human activities. The Public Health Service Act of 1988 requires shipments of used tires from countries with Ae. albopictus to be treated to prevent further importations. Given the extensive spread of the mosquito in the United States, it is questionable whether such a requirement is still justified. Ae. albopictus, a major biting pest throughout much of its range, is a competent laboratory vector of at least 22 arboviruses, including many viruses of public health importance. Cache Valley and eastern equine encephalomyelitis viruses are the only human pathogens isolated from U.S. populations of Ae. albopictus. There is no evidence that this mosquito is the vector of human disease in the United States.

    Note: Table 1, "Susceptibility of Aedes albopictus to oral infection with arboviruses and ability to transmit by bite," indicates that Aedes albopictus can become infected with WNV and transmit the virus.

  • Moore, C.G., P. Reiter, D.A. Eliason, R.E. Bailey and E.G. Campos. 1990. Apparent Influence of the Stage of Blood Meal Digestion on the Efficacy of Ground Applied ULV Aerosols for the Control of Urban Culex Mosquitoes. III. Results of a computer simulation. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 6:376-83.
  • Morse, Dale L. 2003. West Nile Virus — Not a Passing Phenomenon. New England Journal of Medicine 348(22): 2173-2174 http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/348/22/2173

    Extract: As private citizens and as public health professionals, we are enthralled by the new, the unknown, and the catastrophic. This is especially true for epidemics that appear suddenly, spread rapidly, and cause severe illness. History and literature provide many examples of how the effects of microbes have helped to win and lose wars and to make and break governments, mesmerizing the media and the public. Unfortunately, despite successful battles against microbial diseases early in the 20th century, the oft-repeated declaration that the war had been won was premature. The resulting decline in preparedness was followed by a resurgence of infectious...

  • Mosquito Genomics World Wide Web Server. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO. http://klab.agsci.colostate.edu/.

    The Mosquito Genomics WWW Server provides access to mosquito genomics databases and links to other genomics WWW servers and to other WWW servers around the world. It hosts databases for 5 species of mosquito and a database of more than 70,000 mosquito-related publications, many of which precede the computer age and are not referenced in other online databases. 
  • Mostashari, Farzad, Michel L. Bunning, Paul T. Kitsutani, Daniel A. Singer, Denis Nash, Michael J. Cooper, Naomi Katz, Karen A. Liljebjelke, Brad J. Biggerstaff, Annie D. Fine, Marcelle C. Layton, Sandra M. Mullin, Alison J Johnson, Denise A. Martin, Edward B. Hayes, and Grant L. Campbell. 2001. Epidemic West Nile Encephalitis, New York, 1999: Results of a Household-based Seroepidemiological Survey. The Lancet 378(9728):261-264. [PDF]

    Summary:
    Background: In the summer of 1999, West Nile virus was recognised in the western hemisphere for the first time when it caused an epidemic of encephalitis and meningitis in the metropolitan area of New York City, NY, USA. Intensive hospital-based surveillance identified 59 cases, including seven deaths in the region. We did a household-based seroepidemiological survey to assess more clearly the public-health impact of the epidemic, its range of illness, and risk factors associated with infection.
    Methods: We used cluster sampling to select a representative sample of households in an area of about 7á3 km2 at the outbreak epicentre. All individuals aged 5 years or older were eligible for interviews and phlebotomy. Serum samples were tested for IgM and IgG antibodies specific for West Nile virus.
    Findings: 677 individuals from 459 households participated. 19 were seropositive (weighted seroprevalence 2á6% [95% CI 1á2-4á1). Six (32%) of the seropositive individuals reported a recent febrile illness compared with 70 of 648 (11%) seronegative participants (difference 21% [0-47]). A febrile syndrome with fatigue, headache, myalgia, and arthralgia was highly associated with seropositivity (prevalence ratio 7á4 [1á5-36á6]). By extrapolation from the 59 diagnosed meningoencephalitis cases, we conservatively estimated that the New York outbreak consisted of 8200 (range 3500-13 000) West Nile viral infections, including about 1700 febrile infections.
    Interpretation: During the 1999 West Nile virus outbreak, thousands of symptomless and symptomatic West Nile viral infections probably occurred, with fewer than 1% resulting in severe neurological disease.
    See also commentary on this article, as well as a summary about this serosurvey from NYC DOH.
  • Mostashari F, Kulldorff M, Hartman JJ, Miller JR, and Kulasekera V. June 2003. Dead Bird Clusters as an Early Warning System for West Nile Virus Activity. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9(6): 641-646. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol9no6/02-0794.htm.

    Abstract: An early warning system for West Nile virus (WNV) outbreaks could provide a basis for targeted public education and surveillance activities as well as more timely larval and adult mosquito control. We adapted the spatial scan statistic for prospective detection of infectious disease outbreaks, applied the results to data on dead birds reported from New York City in 2000, and reviewed its utility in providing an early warning of WNV activity in 2001. Prospective geographic cluster analysis of dead bird reports may provide early warning of increasing viral activity in birds and mosquitoes, allowing jurisdictions to triage limited mosquito-collection and laboratory resources and more effectively prevent human disease caused by the virus. This adaptation of the scan statistic could also be useful in other infectious disease surveillance systems, including those for bioterrorism.

  • Mount, Gary. 1998. A Critical Review of Ultralow-Volume Aerosols of Insecticide Applied with Vehicle-Mounted Generators for Adult Mosquito Control. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 14(3):305-334.

    Abstract:     This review of ultralow-volume(ULV) ground aerosols for adult mosquito control includes discussion on application volume, aerosol generators, droplet size, meteorology, swath, dispersal speed, assay methods, insecticide efficacy, and nontarget effects. It summarizes the efficacy of ULV insecticidal aerosols against many important pest and disease-bearing species of mosquitoes in a wide range of locations and habitats in the United States and in some countries of Asia and the Americas. Fourteen conclusions were drawn from the review.
    1) ULV ground aerosol applications of insecticide are as efficacious against adult mosquitoes as high- or low-volume aerosols. 2) ULV aerosols with an optimum droplet size spectrum can be produced by several types of nozzles including vortex, pneumatic, and rotary. Droplet size of a particular insecticide formulation is dependent primarily on nozzle air pressure or rotation speed and secondarily on insecticide flow rate.
    3) Label flow rates of insecticide for ULV aerosol application can be delivered accurately during routine operations with speed-correlated metering systems within a calibrated speed range, usually not exceeding 20 mph.
    4) The most economical and convenient method of droplet size determination for ULV aerosols of insecticide is the waved-slide technique.
    5) The efficacy of ULV ground aerosols against adult mosquitoes is related to droplet size because it governs air transport and impingement. The optimum droplet size for mosquito adulticiding is 8-115 micrometers volume median diameter (VMD) on the basis of laboratory wind-tunnel tests and field research with caged mosquitoes.
    6) In general, ULV aerosols should be applied following sunset when mosquitoes are active and meteorological conditions are favorable for achieving maximum levels of control. Application can be made during daytime hours when conditions permit, but rates may have to be increased. The critical meteorological factors are wind velocity and direction, temperature, and atmospheric stability and turbulence.
    7) Maximum effective swaths are obtained with aerosols in the optimum VMD range during favorable meteorological conditions in open to moderately open terrain. The insecticide dosage must be increased in proportion to increased swath to maintain the same level of mosquito control.
    8) Dispersal speed within a range of 2.5-20 mph is not a factor affecting efficacy if insecticide rate and optimum droplet size are maintained.
    9) The results of caged mosquito assays are comparable with reductions in free-flying natural populations.
    10) The field efficacies of mosquito adulticides applied as ULV ground aerosols are predictable from the results of laboratory wind-tunnel tests.
    11) Results of field tests in open to moderately open terrain during favorable meteorological conditions indicated that ULV insecticidal aerosol application rates produce 90% or more control of Anopheles, Culex and Psorophora spp. at below or nearly equal to maximum United States Environmental Protection Agency label rates. Against some Aedes spp., some pyrethroid insecticides must be synergized to produce 90% control at label rates.
    12) Results of field tests in residential areas with moderate to dense vegetation and in citrus groves or other densely wooded areas showed that insecticide rates of ULV ground aerosols must be increased 2-3-fold to obtain 90% or more control of adult mosquitoes. However, the maximum rates on some insecticide labels would have to be increased to allow higher application rates.
    13) Application of ULV ground aerosols of insecticide in accordance with label directions following sunset do not pose a serious threat to humans, nontarget beneficial animals, or automotive paints.
    14) Some aerosol generators operated at high RPM levels exceed the OSHA 8-h hearing hazard criteria of 90 dBA and may require hearing protectors for operators.
  • Mueller-Beilschmidt, Doria. 1990. Toxicology and Environmental Fate of Synthetic Pyrethroids. Journal of Pesticide Reform 10 (3).

    Abstract:     Since the technical (chemically pure) grade of a pyrethroid is usually formulated (mixed with carriers, solvents, etc.) for use in commercial pest control, the toxicity of these other ingredients must be taken into consideration when assessing the toxicity of a formulated product. For example, fenvalerate is much less toxic to mice than the formulated product, Pydrin. A ten-fold difference in toxicity between formulations with the same active ingredient, but with different carriers, can be seen in some cases.
  • Munstermann, Leonard E. and Theodore G. Andreadis. 1999. Aedes japonicus in Connecticut. SOVE Newsletter, Northeastern Region 30(2 March). http://www.sove.org/.

    Excerpts:     The East Asian mosquito species, Aedes (Finlaya) japonicus (Theobald, 1901), has been reported in August and September, 1998, light trap collections from Long Island, New York, and Colliers Mills, New Jersey (Peyton et al. 1999). Consequently, a search of archival mosquito collections and a survey of potential habitats were initiated in June 1999. Two adult Ae. japonicus were located in the backyard collections (41¡23' 31"N, 71¡53' 49"W, Hamden CT) of one of us LEM, deposited in the Yale University Peabody Museum of Natural History. The original color plate and description by Theobald (Theobald, 1901) clearly differentiated these mosquitoes from other local mosquitoes; Ae. japonicus cannot be confused with other striped mosquitoes foundin tires further south-Ae. aegypti (L.) or Ae. albopictus (Skuse).

    This mosquito appears to be widespread in Connecticut. Although it was found in tire dumps, both larval and adults were found away from such accumulations in natural conditions where the habitats were rock pools or tree holes. To assume recent introduction to the United States by used tires is premature; clearly Ae. japonicus has been resident for some period of time. In earlier surveys conducted by one of us TGA in the Kent rock pools (1989) and several tire dumps (1987) (Andreadis, 1989), no unusual species were noted. Its occurrence as adults in late June through October indicates an ability to survive into the late autumn.

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