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Modified:
Nov 7, 2004
West Nile Virus

West Nile Virus
Bibliography of Scientific Literature (R)

  • Rappole, J.H. 1995. The Ecology of Migrant Birds: A Neotropical Perspective. Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington.
  • Rappole, John H., Scott R. Derrickson and Zdenek Hubalek. 2000. Migratory Birds and Spread of West Nile Virus in the Western Hemisphere. Emerging Infectious Diseases.6(4). http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol6no4/rappole.htm.

    Abstract: West Nile virus, an Old World flavivirus related to St. Louis encephalitis virus, was first recorded in the New World during August 1999 in the borough of Queens, New York City. Through October 1999, 62 patients, 7 of whom died, had confirmed infections with the virus. Ornithophilic mosquitoes are the principal vectors of West Nile virus in the Old World, and birds of several species, chiefly migrants, appear to be the major introductory or amplifying hosts. If transovarial transmission or survival in overwintering mosquitoes were the principal means for its persistence, West Nile virus might not become established in the New World because of aggressive mosquito suppression campaigns conducted in the New York area. However, the pattern of outbreaks in southern Europe suggests that viremic migratory birds may also contribute to movement of the virus. If so, West Nile virus has the potential to cause outbreaks throughout both temperate and tropical regions of the Western Hemisphere.

  • Ray D.E. and P.J. Forshaw. 2000. Pyrethroid Insecticides: Poisoning Syndromes, Synergies, and Therapy. Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology 38(2):95-101.

    Background: Pyrethroid insecticides are widely used, but there have been relatively few reports of systemic poisoning. These reports have, however, shown that pharmacotherapy is difficult and that the duration of poisoning can be unexpectedly long. Pyrethroids are ion channel toxins prolonging neuronal excitation, but are not directly cytotoxic. Two basic poisoning syndromes are seen. Type I pyrethroids produce reflex hyperexcitability and fine tremor. Type II pyrethroids produce salivation, hyperexcitability, choreoathetosis, and seizures. Both produce potent sympathetic activation. Local effects are also seen: skin contamination producing paresthesia and ingestion producing gastrointestinal irritation. The slow absorption of pyrethroids across the skin usually prevents systemic poisoning, although a significant reservoir of pyrethroid may remain bound to the epidermis. Carboxyesterase inhibitors can enhance pyrethroid toxicity in high-dose experimental studies. Hence, the unauthorized pyrethroid/organophosphate mixtures marketed in some developing countries may precipitate human poisoning. Pyrethroid paresthesia can be treated by decontamination of the skin, but systemic poisoning is difficult to control with anticonvulsants. Pentobarbitone, however, is surprisingly effective as therapy against systemic type II pyrethroid poisoning in rats, probably due to its dual action as a chloride channel agonist and a membrane stabilizer.

  • Reeves, W.C. 1990. Overwintering of Arboviruses. Pages 357-382 in W.C Reeves, ed. California Mosquito and Vector Control Association: Sacramento, California. Website for the Mosquito and Vector Control Association of California: http://www.mvcac.org/.
  • Reisen W.K. 1995. Guidelines for Surveillance and Control of Arboviral Encephalitis in California. Pages 1-34 in California Mosquito and Vector Control Association: Sacramento, California. Website for the Mosquito and Vector Control Association of California: http://www.mvcac.org/.
  • Reisen, William K., Richard P. Meyer, Robert F. Cummings, and Oscar Delgado. 2000. Effects of trap design and CO 2 Presentation on the Measurement of Adult Mosquito Abundance Using Centers for Disease Control-Style Miniature Light Traps. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 16(1):13-18.

    Abstract: Centers for Disease Control miniature light traps augmented with CO2 provide an effective method of monitoring Culex abundance and may provide a useful supplement to New Jersey light traps used by the California Mosquito Surveillance Program. To assist in standardizing sampling protocols, the present research compared the catch of adult mosquitoes collected using 4 trap designs and 3 CO2 presentation methods. When augmented with dry ice, the Arbovirus Field Station (AFS) trap (consisting of a 3-in. fan mounted into a white polyvinyl chloride pipe and operated without a light source or rain shield) collected as many or more Culex females than similar traps purchased from John W. Hock and American Biophysics, or a trap with a 4.25-in. 2-bladed fan constructed by the Orange County Vector Control District (similar to the Encephalitis Virus Surveillance model distributed by Bioquip). Few blooded or gravide females and males were collected, indicating that CO2. Released from the dry ice and not light probably was the primary attractant. Catch of the Culex tarsalis females in traps baited with CO2, released in 15 3- or 2- sec bursts per hour collected the fewest mosquitoes. In all experiments, trap location effects were significant and accounted for as much variability in catch size as trap design or CO2 presentation were consistent over time, space, and different levels of mosquito abundance.

  • Reiter, Paul. 1998. Aedes albopictus and the World Trade in Used Tires, 1988-1995: The Shape of Things To Come?Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 14(1):83-94.

    Abstract: In the decade since used tires were identified as the mode of introduction of Aedesalbopictus to the United States, similar infestations have been reported from ten other countries in the Americas and two in Europe. Millions of used tires are still being traded throughout the world and although a few governments have implemented inspection procedures to prevent further introductions, these are unlikely to be effective. Further introductions of mosquitoes of potential public health significance are inevitable.

  • Reiter, P., D.A. Eliason, D.B. Francy, C.G. Moore and E.G. Campos. 1990. Apparent Influence of the Stage of Blood Meal Digestion on the Efficacy of Ground Applied ULV Aerosols for the Control of Urban Culex Mosquitoes. I. Field Evidence. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 6:366-70.
  • Reiter, Paul and Daniel Sprenger. 1987. The Used Tire Trade: A Mechanism for the Worldwide Dispersal of Container Breeding Mosquitoes. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 3:494-501.

    Abstract: Modern transportation methods have facilitated an extensive trade in used tires at the national level. The history and reasons for this trade are described. Comprehensive data on United States imports and United States, Japanese, and Korean imports of used tires for the period 1978-85 reveal an unprecedented potential for the worldwide dispersal of important vector mosquitoes such as Aedes albopictus and Ae. aegypti. Other articles of commerce with similar potential may await recognition.

  • Rettich, F. 1980. Residual Toxicity of Wall-Sprayed Organophosphates, Carbamates, and Pyrethroids to Mosquito Culex pipiens molestus. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology and Immunology 24(1): 110-117.

    Summary: Culex pipiens molestus was found more frequently in Czechoslovakia in the years just prior to 1980 [date of publication] than previously. Culex pipiens molestus are found in mass quantities and are a nuisance, especially in municipal housing areas. Larvae of C.p.molestus hatch year round in flooded cellars, hot-water distribution areas, etc. Adults then disperse through passage ways and into living quarters and adjacent buildings. If breeding areas are freely accessible, preventative measures (drying the breeding sites) or larvicides can be used. When breeding sites are not accessible, walls of passage ways, cellars, shafts and dwellings are sprayed with adulticides to kill the adult mosquito.

    The objective of this study was to test residual toxicity of mosquito pesticides sprayed on walls. Treatment dosages were 0.1 g and 1 g/m2, at 18-25 degrees C, with 45-65% relative humidity. Data were collected for 3 types of wall surfaces: whitewashed walls, walls limewashed 3 days before insecticide application and walls limewashed 3 months prior to insecticide use. Data were collected for the "knockdown" time to kill all exposed mosquitoes (KT100) and for residual toxicity over time, beginning 24 hours after spraying. Twenty 1-2 day old female Culex pipiens molestus were exposed in each treatment. Although 25 insecticices were studied, results are given here only for malathion (Cythion 57% EC).

    At 1 g active ingredient per m2, malathion KT100 = 2.5-3.5 hours after application for the first 4 weeks. Residual toxicity on the whitewashed walls persisted 16 weeks (after which at least one mosquito survived an 8-hour exposure). At the lower dose of 0.1 g active ingredient per m2, "killing time" (KT100) = 4 hours or more, for a period of 2 weeks. There was no residual activity on the limewashed walls at either dosage.

  • Riede, Klaus. 2000. Conservation and Modern Information Technologies: The Global Register of Migratory Species (GROMS). Commentary. Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy 3:2 .

    Abstract: The present paper reviews the state of knowledge of migratory species protected under the Bonn Convention (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals) and presents first results from the Global Register of Migratory Species (GROMS). GROMS summarises our knowledge on migratory species within one relational database in combination with a geographical information system (GIS). GROMS will reveal information deficiencies, support the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, and contribute to the Clearinghouse Mechanism under the Convention on Biological Diversity. At present, GROMS contains 412 species distribution maps in GIS format. As an initial example of the potential of GIS-analysis, GIS-maps of birds and mammals were intersected with administrative borders, and the number of species was calculated for each province. The resulting map shows a high diversity in temperate regions, which is in contrast to maps that usually show most "biodiversity hotspots" to be in the tropics. Consequences for conservation policies are discussed and future prospects for GIS analysis are outlined.

  • Risk Communication Bibliography. National Cancer Institute. National Institutes of Health. (http://dccps.nci.nih.gov/DECC/riskcommbib/). Accessed June 12, 2001.

    Description: A new annotated bibliography is available to health professionals and health communication researchers hat identifies nearly 400 printed sources of information on the communication of risks for disease, particularly cancer. The bibliography includes research reports, theoretical discussions, case histories, instructional manuals, dissertations, and reviews that concern, citations, in the bibliography are not limited to cancer topics because lessons learned from other domains are often also relevant to cancer. Also cited are print materials that pertain to people’s perception of risk because learning how people think may lead to the improvement of messages about health and safety problems. Records are coded by some of the following criteria: publication type, focus, communicator, audience role, gender, and ethnicity; setting and other categories. Contact: Dianne Needham, needhamd@nih.gov, Health Communication and Informatics Research Branch, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health.

  • Rodhain F, Petter JJ, Albignac R, Coulanges P, Hannoun C. 1985. Arboviruses and lemurs in Madagascar: experimental infection of Lemur fulvus with yellow fever and West Nile viruses. American Journal Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 34(4): 816-22.

    Abstract: In previous serological surveys of lemurs in Madagascar, antibodies against flaviviruses were frequently detected. To examine the epidemiological role of Lemur fulvus, experimental infections with yellow fever (YF) virus and West Nile (WN) virus were performed. YF and WN infections were clinically unapparent. A 3 to 4-day-long viremia, with moderate levels was observed with YF virus. WN virus, especially the strain isolated in Madagascar, provoked a 4 to 6-day-long viremia sufficient to infect Aedes aegypti. In all experiments, the antibody response was studied during the following weeks by 3 methods. The results led to the conclusion that Malagasy lemurs could act as amplifying hosts for WN virus present in Madagascar, and as hosts for YF virus if it were introduced on the island. The epidemiological role of these primates is discussed according to their ecology and their contact with potential mosquito vectors in forest areas of Madagascar.

  • Roehrig J., L. Staudinger, A.R. Hunt, J.H. Mathews, and C.D. Blair. 2001. Antibody Prophylaxis and Therapy for Flavivirus Encephalitis Infections. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 951:286-297. http://www.annalsnyas.org/cgi/content/full/951/1/286

    Abstract: The outbreak of West Nile (WN) encephalitis in the United States has rekindled interest in developing direct methods for prevention and control of human flaviviral infections. Although equine WN vaccines are currently being developed, a WN vaccine for humans is years away. There is also no specific therapeutic agent for flaviviral infections. The incidence of human WN virus infection is very low, which makes it difficult to target the human populations in need of vaccination and to assess the vaccine's economic feasibility. It has been shown, however, that prophylactic application of antiflaviviral antibody can protect mice from subsequent virus challenge. This model of antibody prophylaxis using murine monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) has been used to determine the timing of antibody application and specificity of applied antibody necessary for successful prophylaxis. The major flaviviral antigen is the envelope (E) glycoprotein that binds cellular receptors, mediates cell membrane fusion, and contains an array of epitopes that elicit virus-neutralizing and nonneutralizing antibodies. The protective efficacy of an E-glycoprotein-specific MAb is directly related to its ability to neutralize virus infectivity. The window for successful application of prophylactic antibody to prevent flaviviral encephalitis closes at about 4 to 6 days postinfection concomitant with viral invasion of the brain. Using murine MAbs to modify human disease results in a human antimouse antibody (HAMA) response that eventually limits the effectiveness of subsequent murine antibody applications. To reduce the HAMA response and make these MAbs more generally useful for humans, murine MAbs can be "humanized" or human MAbs with analogous reactivities can be developed. Antiflaviviral human or humanized MAbs might be practical and cost-effective reagents for preventing or modifying flaviviral diseases.

  • Rose, Robert I. 2001. Pesticides and Public Health: Integrated Methods of Mosquito Management. Emerging Infectious Diseases 7 (1): 17-23. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol7no1/rose.htm.   [pdf]

    Abstract: Pesticides have a role in public health as part of sustainable integrated mosquito management. Other components of such management include surveillance, source reduction or prevention, biological control, repellents, traps, and pesticide-resistance management. We assess the future use of mosquito control pesticides in view of niche markets, incentives for new product development, Environmental Protection Agency registration, the Food Quality Protection Act, and improved pest management strategies for mosquito control.

    Additional Notes: The author is an arthropod biotechnologists with the US Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Riverdale, Maryland (Bob.I.Rose@usda.gov). Article lists mosquito biocontrol options and provides reference to new internet Public Health Pest Control Manual ( http://www.ifas.ufl.edu/~pest/vector). Notes that "adult mosquitoes are easily controlled with insecticides applied at extremely low rates. For example, malathion is applied at 3 fl oz per acre (219.8mL/ha) for mosquitoes, while the rate for agriculture is as much as 16 fl oz per acre (1,172 mL.ha)." Discusses process and political constraints to meeting US regulatory requirements for mosquito control pesticides.

  • Rueda, Leopoldo M., Louis C. Rutledge and Raj K Gupta. 1998. Effect of Skin Abrasions on the Efficacy of the Repellent DEET against Aedes aegypti. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 14(2):178-182.

    Abstract: Abrasion of repellent-treated human skin affected the efficacy of a sustained-release insect repellent containing N, N-diethyl-3-mythylbenzamide (deet) against bites of Aedes aegypti. Skin treated with repellent whenabraded up to 30 times showed significantly lowered protection than unabraded skin against mosquito bites for 10 hours. The mean value of the kinetic coefficient of friction during skin abrasion by clothing (battle dress uniform fabric) for repellent-treated skin (0.159+/- 0.003) was significantly higher than untreated skin (0.122+/- 0.005). Repellent-treated skin appeared stickier than the untreated skin. An increase in the number of skin abrasions by clothing resulted in a reduced duration of protection against mosquito bites.

  • Rupp, Henry R. 1996. Adverse Assessments of Gambusia affinis: an Alternate View for Mosquito Control Practitioners.Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 12(2):155-166. Text: http://www.co.leon.fl.us/mosquito/biocontrol/mosqfish/fishuses.htm.

    Abstract: Adverse opinions on the introduction of Gambusia affinisfor the control of larval mosquitoes are reviewed. The sources span a period of some 59 years and come from a variety of sources. The principal opposition to the introduction of G. affinis comes from ichthyologists, although some mosquito researchers have expressed concerns about the environmental impact of placing the fish in habitats to which it is not native. Questions concerning the appropriateness of using the fish are presented.

    Note: This article is part of a Forum that includes commentary from seven authors on the issue and on Rupp's paper.

  • Rutledge, L.C. and R.K. Gupta. 1999. Variation in the Protection Periods of Repellents on Individual Human Subjects: An Analytical Review. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 5 (3 Sept.): 348-55.

    Abstract: Mosquito repellent test data from the literature were analyzed to estimate mean protection periods and among-subjects standard deviations. Standard deviations were a linear function of the means. Numbers of subjects needed to determine mean protection periods of 1-8 h with confidence limits of +/- 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 h at the 99 and 95% levels of confidence were computed from regression values of the standard deviation, and a table of sample sizes was constructed for use in planning repellent tests.
    Authors are with the Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, attn: MCMR-MSI, Fort Detrick, MD 21702-5012, USA.

  • Rutledge, L.C., R.K. Gupta and Z.A. Mehr. 1997. Evolution of Repellent Tolerances in Representative Arthropods. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 13(4):329-334.

    Abstract:Eight commercial insect repellents were tested against Ornithodoros parkeri (Acari: Argasidae), Dermacentor variabilis (Acari: Ixodidae), Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae), and Xenopsylla cheopis(Siphonaptera: Pulicidae). Patterns of tolerance to the test materials were distinctive for each test species. Levels of tolerance were coded as character state 0 (sensitive), 1 (intermediate), or 2 (tolerant) and mapped on a cladogram reflecting the accepted classification of the test species. Character state 0 was regarded as primitive, as indicated by the ontology of repellent tolerances in ticks. Aedes aegypti was least evolved and X. cheopis was most evolved in tolerance to repellents. Multiple parallelism of the arachnid and X. cheopis lines occurred in the evolution of the observed tolerances.

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