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Modified:
Nov 7, 2004
West Nile Virus

West Nile Virus
Bibliography of Scientific Literature (T)

  • Takashima, Ikuo and Leon Rosen. 1989. Horizontal and Vertical Transmission of Japanese Encephalitis Virus by Aedes japonicus (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 26(5) (September, 1989):454-458.

    Abstract:     Aedes japonicus (Theobald) was evaluated for competence as a vector of Japanese encephalitis virus and for its ability to transmit the virus vertically to its F1 larvae. Ae. Japonicus supported the growth of the virus at 20 and 28 degrees C after feeding on a virus-blood mixture of106.2 plaque forming unit (PFU)/ml. This species was able to transmit the virus to suckling mice after feeding on a virus-blood meal (106.2 PFU/ml) or a viremic chick (103.7 PFU/ml). Vertical transmission of the virus in Ae. Japonicus was demonstrated with a minimum infection rate of 0.7%.
  • Taufllieb, R., Y. Robin and P. Bres. 1972. Preliminary Findings on the Role of Birds in the Ecology of Arboviruses in Senegal. Pages 296-302 in I.A. Cherapanov, ed., Trancontinental Connections of Migratory Birds and Their Role in the Distribution of Arboviruses. Nauka: Novosibirsk, Russia.
  • Taylor, R.M., T.H. Work, H.S. Hurlbut and F. Rizk. 1956. A Study of the Ecology of West Nile Virus in Egypt. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 5:579-620.
  • Taylor, Richard Moreland. 1968. Catalogue of Arboviruses: A Collection of Data on Registered Animal Arboviruses. U.S. Public Health Service: Washington. 898 pp. 
  • Tesh, Robert B., Amelia P.A. Travassos da Rosa, Hilda Guzman, Tais P. Araujo, and Shu-Yuan Xiao. 2002. Immunization with Heterologous Flaviviruses Protective Against Fatal West Nile Encephalitis. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8(3): 245-251. URL: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol8no3/01-0238.htm

    Abstract: Prior immunization of hamsters with three heterologous flaviviruses (Japanese encephalitis virus [JEV] SA14-2-8 vaccine, wild-type St. Louis encephalitis virus [SLEV], and Yellow fever virus [YFV] 17D vaccine) reduces the severity of subsequent West Nile virus (WNV) infection. Groups of adult hamsters were immunized with each of the heterologous flaviviruses; approximately 30 days later, the animals were injected intraperitoneally with a virulent New York strain of WNV. Subsequent levels of viremia, antibody response, and deaths were compared with those in nonimmune (control) hamsters. Immunity to JEV and SLEV was protective against clinical encephalitis and death after challenge with WNV. The antibody response in the sequentially infected hamsters also illustrates the difficulty in making a serologic diagnosis of WNV infection in animals (or humans) with preexisting Flavivirus immunity.

  • Tesh, Robert B., Juan Arroyo, Amelia P.A. Travassos da Rosa, Hilda Guzman, Shu-Yuan Xiao, and Thomas P. Monath. 2002. Efficacy of Killed Virus Vaccine, Live Attenuated Chimeric Virus Vaccine, and Passive Immunization for Prevention of West Nile virus Encephalitis in Hamster Model. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8(12): 1392-1397. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol8no12/pdfs/02-0229.htm

    Abstract: Results of experiments evaluating the efficacy of three immunization strategies for the prevention of West Nile virus (WNV) encephalitis are reported. Immunization strategies evaluated included a killed virus veterinary vaccine, a live attenuated chimeric virus vaccine candidate, and passive immunization with WNV-immune serum; all were tested by using a hamster model of the disease. Each product protected the animals from clinical illness and death when challenged with a hamster-virulent wild-type WNV strain 1 month after initial immunization. The live attenuated chimeric virus vaccine candidate induced the highest humoral antibody responses, as measured by hemagglutination inhibition, complement fixation, and plaque reduction neutralization tests. Although the duration of protective immunity was not determined in this study, our preliminary results and the cumulative experience of other virus vaccines suggest that the live attenuated chimeric virus provides the longest lasting immunity.

  • Theiler, Max and Wilber Downs. 1973. The Arboviruses of Vertebrates: An Account of the Rockefeller Foundation Virus Program, 1951-1970. Yale University Press: New Haven. 578 pp. 
  • Their, Audrey. 2001. Balancing the risks: vector control and pesticide use in response to emerging illness. Journal of Urban Health 78(2):372-381 (http://jurban.oupjournals.org/cgi/reprint/78/2/372).

    Abstract: The competing public health concerns of vector-borne disease and vector control strategies, particularly pesticide use, are inherently subjective and difficult to balance. Disease response decisions must frequently be made in the absence of data or clear criteria. The factors to be weighed include the vector control measures versus those posed by the disease itself; short-term versus long-term disease management goals, specifically with regard to the issue of pesticide resistance; the need to distinguish among diseases of differing severity in making response choices; and the issue of pesticide efficacy. New York City's experience with West Nile virus has illustrated each of these issues. A framework for assessing the appropriate response to West Nile virus can serve to guide our response to likely new pathogens.

  • Thiery, Isabelle, Florence Fouque, B. Gaven, and C. Lagneau. 1999. Residual Activity of Bacillus thuringiensis Serovars medellin and Jegathesan on Culex pipiens and Aedes aegypti Larvae. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 15(3):371-379.

    Abstract:     Bacillus thuringiensis serovar medellinstrain 163-131 and Bacillus thuringiensis serovar jegathesan (B.t.jeg.) strain 367 are very toxic to mosquito larvae. However, they are 10 times less toxic than Bacillus thuringiensis var. isrealensis (B.t.i.) to mosquito larvae under laboratory conditions. Lyophilized powders were produced from these strand their toxicities were compared to that of powder produced from the B.t.i. strain. Larvicidal activity was titrated using Ae. Aegypti larvae (French Guiana strain) in C, French Guiana, in standardized conditions. Residual activity was also assessed in laboratory, using Cx. Pipiens (SLAB) strain), in Montpellier, France. Any negative effect of direct result, soil, or polluted water on the residual activity of the 3 powders was recorded. Increasing bacterial concentration by a factor of little effect on the duration of larvicidal activity, except in the presence of polluted water and when substrate was added. All powders had similar initial efficacies against both types of mosquito larvae, in all conditions except water rich in organic matter. Bacillus thuringiensis serovar medellin had the lowest residual activity, both in the laboratory and in the field, whereas B.t.jeg. remained toxic for as long as B.t.i.
  • Thiery, Isabelle, Thierry Baldet, Philippe Barbazan, Norbert Becker, Bernhard Junginger, Jean-Pierre Mas, Claude Moulinier, Karen Nepstad, Sergio Orduz, and Gilbert Sinegre. 1997. International Indoor and Outdoor Evaluation of Bacillus sphaericus Products: Complexity of Standardizing Outdoor Protocols. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 13(3):218-226.

    Summary:     Larvicidal activities of 3 highly mosquitocidal strains of Bacillus sphaericus (strains C3041, Mal, and LB24) were compared to that of strain 2362, which is currently used commercially to control Culex larval populations, in tropical and European countries. In indoor conditions, strain C3-41 showed the highest activity on both Culex pipiens and Culex quinquefasciatus; strain Mal was the least active. The residual activity causing 80% mortality differed from 20 to 90 days according to the strains and the country. Outdoor experiments with powders were preformed and the initial toxicities were similar in all cases. Residual activities were very different, from 6 to 95 days posttreatment. Liquid formulations were applied to larval habitats. In tropical countries, larval recolonization in cesspits or ponds occurred after 10-35 days. In Europe, higher doses were needed in polluted water than in clear water for the same control, and the time before 80% residual activity was reached was less than 9-12 days. However, in cesspits, residual activity could be observed from 12 days to 5 months. A strain 3-5 times more active than the others in bioassays is not significantly detectable from those strains in field trials.
  • Thiery, Isabelle and Sylviane Hamon. 1998. Bacterial Control of Mosquito Larvae: Investigation of Stability of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus Standard Powders. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 14(4):472-476.

    Abstract: Bacillus thuringiensis     var. israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus products were assayed against their respective reference powders IPS82 and SPH88. Since their production in 1982 and 1988, the potency and larvicidal activity of these standard powders have been regularly checked on their test insects Aedes aegypti (for IPS82) or Culex pipiens (for SPH88). Over the 16-year evaluation period of IPS82 and 10-year evaluation period of SPH88, their potencies were considered stable. The global mean of each year's mean showed a coefficient of variation of less than 20%. Larval rearing was the most important factor in the reproducibility of the bioassay, although some variation also originated from the person performing the bioassay. This study demonstrated that the SPH88 standard could be kept in a stock suspension at 4 degrees Celsius for 3 years without loss of potency. Moreover, after 9 years of storage in suspension, only a 2-fold decrease in the potency of SPH88 was detected.
    Plenary Session 1 (Friday, March 22, 2002)
  • West Nile Virus Surveillance Results. Marfin, A. 2001. PDF.
  • The Evolving West Nile Virus Epizootic in Equines. Crom, R. PDF.
  • Bird Surveillance and Its Use in Predicting Human Risk. Guptill, S. PDF.
  • Mosquito Species Infected with West Nile Virus in the United States, 1999-2001, Implications for Virus Transmission. Nasci, R. PDF.
  • Biology and Control of Culex pipiens and Culex restuans in Massachusetts. Reiter, P. PDF.
    Surveillance - Breakout Session 1A
  • Aseptic Meningitis Epidemic in an Area of Intense WNV Epizootic Activity-Baltimore, 2001. Julian, K. PDF.
  • Use of Sentinel Animals for West Nile Virus Surveillance. Komar, N. PDF.
  • Zoo Surveillance Pilot Project. Travis, D. PDF.
    Virology - Breakout Session 1B
  • Update on Flavivirus Virulence Studies. Barrett, A. PDF.
  • Application of the Equine Vaccine for West Nile Virus. Evans, M. PDF.
  • West Nile Virus Genetics. Anderson, J. PDF.
    Vector Management Programs and West Nile Virus Responses - Breakout Session 2A
  • Intitiating and Maintaining an Integrated Vector Control Program. Miller, J. PDF.
  • Trigger Events for Mosquito Adulticide Applications in 2001. Matyas, B. PDF.
  • Planning for the Arrival of West Nile Virus. Kramer, V. PDF.
    Lab Diagnosis - Breakout Session 2B
  • Current Techniques for Diagnostics and New Developments in Molecular Diagnostics. Lanciotti, R. PDF.
  • Automating Assays to Deal with Large Sample Sizes: A Case Study. Kramer, L. PDF.
  • West Nile Virus Serology: MRL IFA vs. ELISA and New Technologies. Wong, S. PDF.
    Plenary Session 2 (Saturday, March 23, 2002)
  • Summaries of Breakout Sessions Session 1A. Session 1B. Session 2A. Session 2B.
  • How Have States with Several Years' West Nile Virus Experience Modified Programs for 2001-2002? Farello, C. PDF.
  • West Nile Virus Surveillance and Public Health Response-Florida 2001. Conti, L. PDF.
  • Lessons for States on the Leading Edge; What They Are Doing and Plan to Do. Austin, C. PDF.
  • TOXNET. Toxicology Data Network, US National Library of Medicine. http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/. TOXNET is a cluster of searchable databases on toxicology, hazardous chemicals, and related areas.
  • Tsai, T.F. and C.J. Mitchell. 1989. Chapter 42: St. Louis Encephalitis. pp 113-143 in The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, Vol 4. T.P. Monath (Ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 243 pp.
  • Tsai, T.F., F. Popovici, C. Cernescu, G.L. Campbell and N.I. Nedelcu. 1998. West Nile Encephalitis Epidemic in Southeastern Romania.m Lancet 352(9130 Sept 5):767-71. http://www.thelancet.com/.

    Abstract    : West Nile fever (WNF) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus infection endemic in Africa and Asia. In 1996, the first major WNF epidemic in Europe in Romania, with a high rate of neurological infections. We investigated the epidemic to characterize transmission patterns in this novel setting and to determine its origin.
    Methods: Hospital-based surveillance identified patients admitted with acute aseptic meningitis and encephalitis in 40 Romanian districts, including Bucharest. Infection was confirmed with IgM capture and indirect IgG ELISAs. In October, 1996, we surveyed outpatients in Bucharest and seven other districts to estimate seroprevalence and to detect infected patients not admitted to hospital. We also measured the rates of infection and seropositivity in mosquitoes and birds, respectively.

    Results: Between July 15 and Oct 12, we identified 393 patients with serologically confirmed or probable WNF infection, of whom 352 had acute central-nervous-system infections. 17 patients older than 50 years died. Fatality/case ratio and disease incidence increased with age. The outbreak was confined to 14 districts in the lower Danube valley and Bucharest (attack rate 12.4/100000 people) with a seroprevalence of 4.1%. The number of mild cases could not be estimated. WN virus was recovered from Culex pipiens mosquitoes, the most likely vector, and antibodies to WN virus were found in 41% of domestic fowl.

    Interpretation: The epidemic in Bucharest reflected increased regional WNF transmission in 1996. Epidemics of Cx pipiens-borne WNF could occur in other European cities with conditions conducive to transmission.
  • Tyler, Charles R., Nicola Beresford, Melanie van der Woning, John P. Sumpter and Karen Thorpe. 2000. Metabolism and Environmental Degradation of Pyrethroid Insecticides Produce Compounds with Endocrine Activities. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 19 (4): 801-809.

    Abstract:    Pyrethroids are semisynthetic derivatives of the chrysanthemumic acids that have been developed as insecticides, and they are in widespread use. Considerable information is available regarding the toxicity, metabolism and environmental degradation of pyrethroids, but almost nothing is known about their interactions with hormone receptors. In this study, seven commercial pyrethroids as well as products of metabolism and environmental degradation of permethrin were tested for steroid activity (both as agonist and as antagonist) in recombinant yeasts expressing the human estrogen and human androgen receptors. Pyrethroid insecticides had steroid receptor-binding activity. Fenpropathrin and permethrin both acted as weak estrogen agonists. Allethrin, bioallethrin, and cypermethrin had antiestrogenic activity, with potencies between 1,000-fold (bioallethrin) and 10,000-fold (allethrin) less than the estabilished antiestrogen 4-OH-tamoxifen. Six of the seven pyrethroids tested had antiandrogenic activity (the most active, bioallethrin, was 70-fold less potent than flutamide). These activities, however, are believed to result either from contaminants/degradation products in the parent compounds or from metabolism of the parent compounds into active metabolites by the yeast. Three derivatives of permethrin all interactied with sex steroid hormone receptors. Three-phenoxybenzyl alcohol had both estrogenic and antiandrogenic activity, with potencies more than 100-fold greater than that of the parent compound, permethrin. Three-phenoxybenzoic acid and the cyclopropane acid derivative both had antiestrogenic activity, with approximately 100-fold and 1000-fold lower potencies than 4-OH-tamoxifen, respectively. The data presented here highlight that an understanding of the metabolism and environmental degradation of chemicals is essential for assessing the potential of chemicals to have endocrine-modulating effects.
    Note: Authors are with the Department of Biological Sciences, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UK. Corresponding author: charles.tyler@brunel.ac.uk.

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